B. Institutionalism : Policy as Institutional Output C. Process: Policy as political Process D. Rationalism: Policy as Maximum Social Gain E. Incrementalism: Policy as Variation in the Past F. Group Theory : Policy as Group Equilibrium G. Elite Theory : Policy as Elite Preference Chapter Outline
H. Laswell’s Policy Approach
I. Easton’s Model of Policy Analysis J. Lindblom’s Incremental Model K. Dror’s Normative – Optimum Model of Policy Making L. Etzioni’s Mixed Scanning Approach M. Anderson’s Framework of Policy Process MODELS
• model is a working intellectual construct by which social or
physical situations, realer hypothetical, can be represented
• the mental image of world around you which you carry in
your head is model. a mental image is model
• a model is simplified representation of some aspect of real
world POLICY ANALYSIS
IT INVOLVES :
1. a primary concern with explanation rather than prescription
2. a rigorous search for the causes and consequences of public policies 3. an effort to develop and test general propositions about the causes and consequences of public policy and to accumulate reliable research findings of general relevance POLICY ANALYSIS
• policy analysis is a systematic and data
based alternative to intuitive judgments about the effects of policy and policy options
• policy analysis as the “thinking man's response” to demands
MODELS FOR POLICY ANALYSIS
• In public policy analysis we focus on choices in the public
sector, on how decisions should be made by nonprofit institutions. • MODELS FOR POLICY ANALYSIS
• The fundamental choice model is particularly valuable
because it offers a universal yet succinct way of looking the problems in terms of two primary elements of any act of choice. • The alternatives available to the decision maker • His preferences among these alternatives. • MODELS FOR POLICY ANALYSIS
The models we shall use in studying policy are conceptual
models. Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and public policy identify important aspects of policy problems. Suggest explanations for public policy and predict its consequences INSTITUTIONALISM: POLICY AS INSTITUTIONAL OUTPUT
• This approach did not devote much attention to the linkages
between structure of the government Institutions and content of Public Policy • It was assumed that changes in structure will effect policy contents • The reality is that both structure and policy are largely determined by social and economic forces INSTITUTIONALISM: POLICY AS INSTITUTIONAL OUTPUT
The relationship between public policy and government
institutions is very close. Strictly speaking, a policy does not become a public policy until it is adopted, implemented, and enforced by some government institution. Government institutions give public policy three distinctive characteristics. INSTITUTIONALISM: POLICY AS INSTITUTIONAL OUTPUT
First, government lends legitimacy to policies. Government policies
are generally regarded as legal obligations that command the loyalty of citizens. Second , government policies involve universality only government policies extend to all people in a society; the policies of other groups or organizations reach only a part of the society. Finally, government monopolizes coercion in society, only government can legitimately imprison violators of its policies. • INSTITUTIONALISM: POLICY AS INSTITUTIONAL OUTPUT
• This institutional approach has become one of the themes of
public policy analysis and it studies the interactions of institutions created by the government, legislature and the constitution e. g. Members of Parliament, Prime Minister or Cabinet etc. The influence exercised by all these institutions goes a long way in shaping the public policy. • INSTITUTIONALISM: POLICY AS INSTITUTIONAL OUTPUT
• Traditionally the institutional approach focused just on the
study of structures and institutions of government and did not devote attention to the linkages between these governmental institutions and the public policies. But now it has within its ambit the impact of these institutions on the content of public policy and the decision making. CRIQUE OF INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH
• The importance of institutional approach to policy analysis
lies in analyzing the relationship between the governmental institutions and the content of public policy. However it cannot be mentioned that the public policies will be affected by institutions independent of the environmental factors e. g. environmental factors may change so that the changes in the structures of governmental institutions have little effect on the content of public policy. PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY
The policy process normally starts when a policy issue or problem
is identified by one or more stakeholders in society who feel that the actions of the government detrimentally affect them or another segment of society. They then mobilise support to persuade policy – makers to do something in order to change the status of in their favour PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY
Stages in the process
• Problem Identification • Policy Formulation • Policy Legitimation • Policy Implementation • Policy Evaluation PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY
• Problem Identification: The first step and the most important
step in the public policy process is the identification of the issue or problem that needs to be addressed or resolved.
• Policy Formulation: This means coming up with an approach
to solving a problem. Policy-planning agencies, the executive branch, the legislature, bureaucrats, political parties and interest groups may be involved in this stage of the policy process. PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY
• Policy Legitimation: The selection and endorsement of
policies through political actions by Congress, the president, and the courts.
• Policy Implementation: The next obvious step after choosing
an option would be implemented the solution. Various government agencies would be involved in the implementing the policies decided. • PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY
• Policy Evaluation: This is the final stage in the public policy
process. Evaluation is an on going or continuous process. It involves study or review of how effective the new policy has been in resolving the original problem. • PROCESS: POLICY AS POLITICAL ACTIVITY
• this model criticized for being linear and simplistic. in real
world stages of policy process may overlap or never happen “THE TERM PUBLIC POLICY ALWAYS REFERS TO THE ACTIONS OF GOVERNMENT AND THE INTENSIONS AND COMMITMENT THAT DETERMINE THOSE ACTIONS.” --CLARKE E. COCHRAN, ET AL.