DEFECTS, INSPECTION

and
TESTING of WELDS

BY
C.BARDHAN
OBJECTIVES
• To discuss different types of common weld
defects – its causes, effects and remedial
measures.
• Different stages of welding inspection and
applicable parameters.
• Common NDT techniques – its principle,
applicable areas and limitations.
• Identification of few common weld defects
/ discontinuities.
 Weld Defects & Related Terminologies
• Discontinuity:- It is any local variation in material continuity such
as change in geometry, structure, composition or properties.
• Defects:- When any discontinuity, single or multiple, is such size,
shape, type and location that it creates a substantial change of material
failure in service, it is called a “Defect”.
• Crack:- A fracture-type discontinuity characterized by a sharp tip and
high ratio of length and width to opening displacement.
• Porosity:- Cavity-type discontinuity formed by gas entrapment during
weld solidification.
• Shrinkage Void:- A cavity type discontinuity normally formed by
shrinkage during solidification.
• Lack of Penetration (LOP):- Joint penetration which is less than
that specified.
• Lack of Fusion (LOF):- Fusion which lacks a metallurgical bond
between fusion zone and base metal.
• Slag Inclusion:- Nonmetallic solid material entrapment in weld metal
or between weld metal and base metal.
 Type of Weld Defects
• Dimensional Deviation • a) Warpage
• b) Incorrect Joint Prepn.
• c) Incorrect Weld Size
• d) Incorrect Weld Profile
• e) Surface Irregularities

• a) Porosity
• Structural Discontinuity
• b) Slag Inclusion
• c) Tungsten Inclusion
• d) LOP
• e) LOF
• f) Undercut
• g) Cracks

• Defective Properties • a) Of Weld Metal

(Mechanical and/or • b) Of Base Metal
Chemical)
CAUSES OF WELD DEFECTS
Defect Causes

Overlap a) Insufficient travel speed

b) Incorrect electrode angle
c) Higher size of electrode

Spatter a) Excessive arc length

b) Higher current density

Slag Incl. a) Incomplete deslagging

b) Wide weaving
c) Erratic travel Progression
d) Higher size of electrode
CAUSES OF WELD DEFECTS (Cont1)

Defect Causes

Porosities a)High Sulphur & Phosphorus

b) Higher welding speed
c) Longer arc length
d) Moisture in electrode covering

Undercut a) High welding current & speed

b) Incorrect electrode angle
c) Faulty weaving technique

Under Bead a) Harden able base metal

Crack b) Presence of lamination in basemetal
c) High welding stress
CAUSES OF WELD DEFECTS (Cont2)
Defect Causes

Incomplete a) Higher electrode size

Fusion b) High travel speed
c) Insufficient current
d) Improper joint preparation

Concavity a) Surface tension on the

surface of the weld puddle
Lamellar a) Presence of non-metallic
Tearing inclusion parallel to the surface of base

Lack of a) Unclean joint surface

Fusion b) Inadequate welding current
c) Improper de-slaging
d) Wrong electrode movement
Cracks –most unacceptable defects
• Cracks form in the weld and base
metal when localized stresses
exceeds the ultimate strength of the
material. Cracking may occur at
elevated temperature during weld
metal solidification or after
solidification,when the metal
solidification has equalised in temp.
• Cracks can be classified as either hot
cracks develop at elevated
temperature during solidification Or
cold cracks which are develop after
solidification is complete.
• Hot cracks propagates along the
grain boundaries only but cold
cracks propagates both along grains
boundaries and through grains.
 Inspection of Welds
Definition of Inspection as per ISO Std. –

Inspection is that quality control action by means of

examination, observation or measurement to determine the
conformance of material parts, components, system,structures
as well as processes and procedures with predetermined
quality requirements.
Nine Essential Variables of Welding
• 1) Joints
• 2) Base metal
• 3) Filler metal
• 4) Position
• 5) Pre-heat
• 6) PWHT
• 7) Shielding Gas
• 8) Electrical Characteristics
• 9) Technique
Inspection Before Welding
• 1) Application Standard
• 2) WPS,PQR,WPQ
• 3) Drawings
• 4) Material Composition
• 5) Condition of Material
• 6) Condition of Material
• 7) Type of edge preparation,method & finish
• 8) Consumables
• 9) Welding process
• 10) Clearance dimensions,Type of backing(if any)
• 11) Alignment, Tack welds,Presets etc.
• 12) Pre-heat (if any)
Inspection During Welding
• 1) Welding Process Parameter
• 2) Inter pass Temperature
• 3) Filler metal/Electrode condition
• 4) Inter pass cleaning
• 5) Distortion control
• 6) Flux /Shielding gas flow
Inspection After Welding
• 1) Dimensional accuracy
• 2) Appearance of the weld
• 3) Post Weld Heat Treatment (if any)
• 4) Evaluation of internal and surface defects with or
without the aid of Destructive/Non-destructive
testing.
 Testing

It is defined as the physical performance of operations

to determine quantitative measure of certain properties
– It aim to determine quantity i.e. to discover facts
regardless of the implication of result.
Types of Destructive & Non-destructive
Testing
• Destructive • Non-destructive

• Tensile Test • Ultrasonic Test (UT)

• Macro Test • Magnetic Particle Test (MPT)
• Charpy Test • Liquid Penetrant Test (LPT)
• Fracture Test • Radiography Test (RT)
• Bend Test • Visual Test (VT)
Non-destructive Testing
VT- Its Principal,Application areas &
Limitations

Principal Application Areas Limitations

It utilizes the For detection of It is restricted

most sensitive following surface to exposed
organ of our weld defects. or accessible
body i.e.eyes for • Cracks surface
detecting and • Surface discontinuitie
evaluating Irregularities. s of opaque
surface defects. • Contour Defects and materials
• Root Defects only.
Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3

Measuring devices:
• flexible tape, steel rule
• Temperature indicating crayons
• Welding gauges
• Voltmeter
• Ammeter
• Magnifying glass
• Torch / flash light
• Gas flow-meter
Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.27

Causes:
Spatter
• Excessive current
• Damp electrodes
• Contamination
• Incorrect wire feed
speed when welding
with the MAG welding
process
• Arc blow
 LPT- Its Principal,Application areas &
Limitations

Principal Application Areas Limitations

In this method the liquid It is used extensively The major limitation of
penetrant seep into for testing of weld this method of testing is
various types minute defects of wrought and that it can detect those
surface openings(as cast products of both discontinuities that are
fine as 4 micro inch in ferrous and non-ferrous open to surface.
width) by capillary metals.Surface defects It is restricted to non
action as cracks,porosity porous metals/non-
etc.on the surface and metals only.
mainly chip back
testing of weldments
during multi-pass
welding.
UT-
Its Principal, Application areas
& Limitations
UT- Its Principal,Application areas &
Limitations

Principle:-In this NDT method beams of high

frequency sound waves are introduced into
the material to detect surface and sub-
surface flaws. The sound waves travel
through the material with some attenuation
of energy and are reflected at interfaces.
The reflected beam is detected and
analyzed to define the presence and
location of any flaw.
Application areas:-Almost all weld
defects can easily be detected by the use of
this technique which includes voids, cracks,
inclusion etc.It is best suitable to detect
planner defects.
Limitation:-Manual testing require careful
attention by experienced technicians.Parts
that are rough, irregular in shape, very thin
or not homogenous are difficult to be tested.
Ultrasonic Testing

initial pulse

defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

½ Skip CRT Display

initial pulse

defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

Full Skip CRT Display

MPT- Its Principal,Application areas &
Limitations

• Principle:-It depends on the principal that

when the material or part under testing is
magnetized, discontinuities that lie in a direction
generally transverse to the direction of the
magnetic field will cause a leakage field to be
formed at and above the surface of the part.
Application areas:-It may be applied to all types
of heavy weldments as long as the materials are
magnetic.MPT is frequently used to inspect
plate edges prior to welding. The purpose of this
type of inspection is to detect
cracks,laminations,inclusions and segregations.
Limitations:-Thin coating of paint and other
nonmagnetic covering adversely affect
sensitivity of this test.This method will
work only on ferromagnetic
material.Demagnetizing following the test
is often necessary.
RT- Its Principal,Application areas &
Limitations

• Principle:-This method is based on the

principal of differential absorption of
penetrating radiation of electromagnetic
radiation of very short wave length.
Application areas:-It is extensively used
for detecting almost all types of weld
defects.It is best for detecting voluminous
defects.Both ferrous, non-ferrous
metals/non-metallic materials and
composites can tested by this method.
Limitations:-Compared to other NDT
methods, it is expensive.High activity
source require heavy shielding for
protection of personnel.Laminations are
impossible to detect with this method.
Radiographic Testing

X – Rays Gamma Rays

Electrically generated Generated by the decay
of unstable atoms
Radiographic Testing
Source

Radiation beam Image quality indicator

Test specimen

Radiographic film with latent image after exposure

Radiographic Sensitivity

7FE12

Step / Hole type IQI Wire type IQI

Radiographic Sensitivity

Step/Hole Type IQI

Wire Type IQI

Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
• film inside, source outside
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic
• film outside, source inside (internal exposure)
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
• film outside, source outside (external exposure)
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
• film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
 Mechanical Test Samples 4.1

Tensile Specimens
CTOD Specimen

Bend Test
Specimen
Charpy Specimen

Fracture Fillet
Specimen
Destructive Testing 4.1
WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION TESTING

top of fixed pipe

2 Typical Positions for Test
Pieces
Specimen Type Position
•Macro + Hardness 5
3
•Transverse Tensile 2, 4
•Bend Tests 2, 4
•Charpy Impact Tests 3

4 •Additional Tests 3

5
Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.

• Malleability Ability of a material to

withstand deformation
• Ductility under static compressive
• Toughness loading without rupture
• Hardness
• Tensile Strength
Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.

• Malleability Ability of a material

undergo plastic
• Ductility deformation under static
• Toughness tensile loading without
• Hardness rupture. Measurable
elongation and reduction
• Tensile Strength in cross section area
Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.

• Malleability Ability of a material to

withstand bending or the
• Ductility application of shear
• Toughness stresses by impact loading
• Hardness without fracture.

• Tensile Strength
Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.

• Malleability Measurement of a
materials surface
• Ductility resistance to indentation
• Toughness from another material by
• Hardness static load

• Tensile Strength
Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.

• Malleability Measurement of the

maximum force required
• Ductility to fracture a materials bar
• Toughness of unit cross-sectional area
• Hardness in tension

• Tensile Strength
Transverse Joint Tensile Test 4.2

Weld on plate

Multiple cross joint

Weld on pipe specimens
Tensile Test 4.3

All-Weld Metal Tensile

Specimen

Transverse Tensile
Specimen
Charpy V-Notch Impact Test 4.5

Objectives:
• measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas
• assessing resistance toward brittle fracture
Information to be supplied on the test report:
• Material type
• Notch type
• Specimen size
• Test temperature
• Notch location
• Impact Strength Value
Charpy V-Notch Impact Test 4.8

Specime Pendulum
n (striker)

Anvil (support)
Charpy Impact Test 4.9

22.5o
2 mm 10 mm 100% Brittle

Machined
notch

Fracture surface
8 mm

100% bright
crystalline brittle
fracture

100% Ductile
Machined
notch

Large reduction
in area, shear
lips
Randomly torn,
dull gray fracture
surface
Hardness Testing 4.10

Definition
• Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant load
• There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness

Hardness tests:
• Brinell
• Vickers
• Rockwell
Vickers Hardness Test 4.11

Vickers hardness tests:

• indentation body is a square based diamond pyramid
(136º included angle)
• the average diagonal (d) of the impression is
converted to a hardness number from a table
• it is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025
Adjustable
Diamond Indentation shutters
indentor
Vickers Hardness Test Machine 4.11
Brinell Hardness Test 4.11

• Hardened steel ball of given diameter is subjected for

a given time to a given load
• Load divided by area of indentation gives Brinell
hardness in kg/mm2
• More suitable for on site hardness testing
30KN

Ø=10mm
steel ball
Rockwell Hardness Test

Rockwell B Rockwell C
1KN
1.5KN

Ø=1.6mm 120°Diamond
steel ball Cone
Hardness Testing 4.12

usually the hardest region

1.5 to 3mm
fusion line
or
fusion HAZ
boundary

Hardness Test Methods Typical Designations

Vickers 240 HV10
Rockwell Rc 22
Brinell 200 BHN-W
Hardness specimens can also be used for CTOD samples
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated
application of tensile stress.
Crack growth is slow (in same cases, crack may grow
into an area of low stress and stop without failure).
Fatigue Fracture
Secondary mode of failure Fatigue fracture surface
ductile fracture rough fibrous
appearance smooth in appearance

Initiation points / weld defects

 Bend Tests 4.15

Object of test:
• To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend
testing can also be used to give an assessment of
weld zone ductility.
• There are three ways to perform a bend test:

Face bend
Root bend Side bend
Side bend tests are normally carried out on welds over 12mm in thickness
 Bending test 4.16

Types of bend test for welds (acc. BS EN 910):

“t” up to 12 mm Root / face

bend

Thickness of material - “t”

“t” over 12 mm Side bend

Fillet Weld Fracture Tests 4.17

Object of test:
• To break open the joint through the weld to permit
examination of the fracture surfaces
• Specimens are cut to the required length
• A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied
along the fillet welds length
• Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen
with a single hammer blow
• Visual inspection for defects
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests 4.17

Hammer

2mm
Notch

Fracture should break weld saw cut to root

Fillet Weld Fracture Tests 4.17

This fracture indicates This fracture has

lack of fusion occurred saw cut to root

Lack of Penetration
Thank You