9.

FIRE

9 FIRE 1
 Introduction
 Many fires are associated with the use of high-risk
materials and, through ongoing legislation should result in
continuing improvements;
◦ it often takes several years before older, high-risk materials are
replaced.

 In large or tall buildings, the much higher potential risk

resulting from reduced access of emergency services has
long been recognized through again, fires still occur,
sometimes due to failure of one or two parts of the
structure to prevent fire spread.

 Increasing attention is now being given to fire stops in

cavities, ducts and roof spaces.

9 FIRE 2
Combustion
Three prequisites for a fire are;
◦ Fuel
◦ Oxygen
◦ Heat

1. Fuel:
 Almost all organic materials behave as fuels.
 Carbon and Hydrogen are the main constituents so that
the materials rich in these will be a greater hazard and
especially those rich in hydrogen, such as oil products
and gas, since hydrogen generates more heat than
carbon.

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2. Oxygen:
 This is present in the form of air, diluted with nitrogen which
is inert.
 Pure oxygen, sometimes stored in cylinders is highly dangerous.

3. Heat:
Heat causes;
 Chemical decomposition of most organic materials releasing
volatile vapor. This effect is called PYROLYSIS.
 Reaction between both the solid and vapour fraction and
oxygen;
C + O2  CO2 + heat (solid fuel)
CH4 + 2 O2  CO + 2H2O +Heat (hydrocarbon fuel)

 These are combustion processes though it is the reaction of vapor
with oxygen together with accompanying light emission that is
described as a “FLAME”

9 FIRE 4
 Flame
They are not necessary for fire but their
pressure usually increases the severity of a
fire.

Because;
 Gases have much greater mobility than solids so
that flames help spread the fire.

 The temperature in a flame is very high- usually 

1200oC.
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 Ignition
 The application of sufficient heat will initiate the
combustion process, which then generates more
heat and ultimately, when the temperature is high
enough, ignition or flaming will occur.

9 FIRE 6
 Fire and Density

 The “ideal” for habitable buildings might be considered to

be avoidance of all combustible materials.

 Normally totally impracticable:

◦ because organic materials are inseparably linked to human comfort
furniture, furnishings, clothing- and to human activity-books paper
and implements.

 In many cases for reasons of economy and/ or convenience

the enclosure itself will involve combustible materials
(wooden floors, doors, window frames and partitions).

9 FIRE 7
 Fire Load
 The risk presented by the combustible contents
of an enclosure is defined as “FIRE LOAD”.

 Fire Load = total mass of combustible contents

in the enclosure
 expressed as wood equivalent per unit floor area.

 Fire Load = Comb.mass/(m2 (floor))

 Higher fire loads produce longer duration fires.

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 Fire Severity
Depends on:
1. Type and decomposition of combustible
material,

2. Ventilation characteristics;
good ventilation may reduce the durability of fires by venting heat.

9 FIRE 9
 Development of Fires
 Damage of fire depends on;
◦ situation which give rise to it,
◦ the way in which it develops and spreads.

 In the early stages of most fires, spreading is

largely the result of flaming and localized
heat generation,
 hence it requires materials which are not only
combustible but in a flammable form.

9 FIRE 10
 Flashover
 It is the most important stage in any fire (See Figure 9.1).

 Occurs when the air temperature in the enclosure

reaches about 6000C.

 At that point, pyrolysis (vaporisation) of all combustable

materials takes place so that they all become involved in
the fire and flaming reaches dramatic proportions, limited
only by the total fuel available and/or by the supply of air.

9 FIRE 11
Figure 9.1 BS476 tests relating to initiation, growth, and
spread of an uncontrolled fire in the compartment of origin.

9 FIRE 12
 In many such fires, flaming occurs mainly
outside windows using to lack of air
internally and this helps spread the fire
upwards to adjacent floors of the building.

 A priority in design for fire resistance is

to prevent or delay flashover since there
is little change of survival in an enclosure
once this has occurred.

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 The thermal inertia of the surfaces of an
enclosure is an important factor:
 highly conductive, heat absorbent materials such as brick, help
to delay the temperature rise as well as being non-
combustible.

 Flashover may be prevented in poorly ventilated

closures due to lack of air for combustion, or
delayed in very large ones where there are large
volumes of air in relation to available fuel-they
have a cooling effect.

 It is estimated at present that the fire services

arrive before flash-over in about 90% of fires.
9 FIRE 14
 F i r e Te s t s
 Fire tests attempt to classify materials and components
in relation to fire performance and form the basis of
Building Regulations. They cover 2 chief areas:
1.The development and spread of fire.
◦ These tests include combustability, ignitibility, fire propogation,
spread of flame and heat emission of combustible materials.

2. Effects of fire on the structure, adjacent

structures and means of escape, the first priority
in any fire being the safety of the occupants.
◦ These tests are concerned with the structural performance of
buildings, their ability to contain the fire and problems associated
with smoke.

9 FIRE 15
 Many of the above aspects are covered by
BS476, Figure 9.2. A brief resume of the
contents of parts relating to fire spread in
current Building Regulations is given in
Table 9.1.

Examples on fires
◦ Collapse of World Trade Centers (New York)

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Figure 9.2 Five ways in which fire can be initiated.

9 FIRE 17
 Table 9.1 BS476 tests relating to fire development and
spread referred to in current Building regulations .
BS 476 Part number Test Procedure Results Examples
and title
Part 3, 1958 Roof represented by panel. 1958 Letter designation AA-best-e.g. Slates, clay or
External fire exposure Preliminary ignition test, then flame/radiation 1st letter penetration time Concrete tiles on rafters.
Roof test A-D. A-1 hour; D-prelim test CC-bitumen felt on boarding
2nd letter flame spread A-
nil; D-sustained.
Prefix F flat; S sloping
Part 3, (1975) Similar Prelim test: persistent or P60-best-as AA above
As above extended flaming X;
otherwise P.
Penetration time. Flame
spread not indicated
Part 4, 1970 40 x 40 x 50 mm samples If no continuous flaming for Non-organic materials usually
Test for heated in an electric furnace. 10 s and temp. rise less than Incombustible-exception, some
Non-combustibility Flaming/temp. rise observed 50OC-non-combustible Magnesium/aluminium alloys
Part 6, 1968 (1981) 228 x 228 x 50 mm samples Indices depend upon I and i1 usually quoted eg. 60/40-
Fire propagation index subject to increasing heat/flame. temperature reached i1, i2, i3 Insulation board (unpainted)
Temperature measured at 3 min, at each time 10/5-plaster board
10 min, 20 min. I=i1+i2+i3
Part 7, 1971 900 x 230 mm sheet not more Flame spread measured at 1½ Class 1 asbestos cement, fibre
Surface spread of flame than 50 mm thick exposed to pilot flame/radiant and 10 minutes Insulation board + 3 coats emulsion
panel 10 min: Class I not more Class 3 untreated softwood
than 165 mm
Class 2 165-455
Class 3 455-710
Class 4 more than 710 mm
Part 8, 1972 Full size components-for Stability, integrity, insulation 30/20 door-stability 30 mins,
Fire resistance example, beams, floors, walls values stated integrity 20 mins
subjected to standard
temperature time curve
Part 11, 1982 45 mm diameter 50 mm thick Temperature rise in furnace
Heat emission cylinder. Method similar to and in specimen measured;
Part 4 flaming; mass loss recorded

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9 FIRE 19
After Fire
 the amount of debris,
 blackening of the structure,
 Peeling,
 loss of finishes,
can give the impression that the concrete elements are
severely damaged.

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 Assessing fire-damage
 An inspection of the site including limited non-destructive
testing, sampling and laboratory investigation to produce a
repair classification for each element.

 Experienced practitioner can obtain a significant amount of

information during a site inspection.

 Laboratory investigation is often critical to establish the

temperature achieved at different depths in the concrete
and thus the condition of that element.

 An indispensable technique is the investigation in

petrographic examination.

9 FIRE 21
 General considerations
Loss of strength and modulus of elasticity
 Concrete looses strength on heating.

 Residual strength of a concrete element after a fire

depends on several factors, for temperatures up to
3000C the residual strength of structural-quality
concrete is not severely reduced.

 Concrete is unlikely to possess any useful structural

strength if it has been subjected to temperatures above
5000C, the strength then being reduced by about 80%.

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 Typically, concrete made with lightweight
aggregate does not lose significant
strength until 500oC.

 The effects of a fire on modulus of

elasticity are similar to the effects on
strength.

 Up to 300oC, the modulus of elasticity is

not severely reduced but by 800oC it may
be as little as 15% of its original value
(85% loss).
9 FIRE 23
 Effects of fire on reinforcement
 Steel looses strength on heating but reinforcement is often
protected from the effects of fire by the surrounding concrete,
which is a poor thermal conductor.

 Steel reinforcement suffers a reduction in yield strength at

temperatures above 450oC for cold-worked steel and 600oC for
hot-worked steel.

 Prestressed steel looses tensile strength at temperatures as low

as 200oC and by 400oC may be at 50% of normal strength.

 Buckling of reinforcement can occur at high temperatures if

there is restraint, for example by adjacent elements, against
thermal expansion.

9 FIRE 24
 Spalling of concrete after fire
 In a fire, most concrete structures spall to some extend, although
lightweight aggregate concretes are usually more resistant.

 The surface can scale in the early stages of a fire as the near-surface
aggregate splits as a result of physical or chemical changes at high
temperatures.

 Explosive spalling also occurs in the early stages of a fire but involves
larger pieces of concrete violently breaking away from the surface and
may continue from areas already spalled. Such spalling usually results
from high moisture content in the concrete.

 The thermal shock of a cold water on to hot concrete during fire-

fighting can also induce spalling.

9 FIRE 25
 Depth of damage
 Concrete is a poor thermal conductor and so high
temperatures will initially be confined to the surface layer
with the interior concrete remaining cooler.

 At corners where two surfaces are exposed to the fire,

the effect will penetrate further because of the
transmission of heat from the two surfaces.

 If concrete spalls early in a fire, the depth of effect from

the original surface will be greater than if the concrete
does not spall or if spalling occurs later in the fire.

9 FIRE 26
 Damage assessment
Site inspection
 Various features of the concrete and associated
materials in the fire-affected locations must be
noted and from these a visual classification of
the damage produced.

 The Concrete Society report (CSTR 33)

includes a useful numerical classification and this
is shown in a simplified format in Table 9.2

9 FIRE 27
 Table 9.2. CSTR 33 classification of fire
damage.
Class of Features observed
damage Plaster/finish Colour Crazing Spalling Rebars Cracks Deflection
None
0 Unaffected Normal None None None None
exposed
None
1 Some peeling Normal Slight Minor None None
exposed
Up to 25%
2 Substantial loss Pink Moderate Localized None None
exposed
Whitish Up to 50%
3 Total loss Extensive Considerable Minor None
grey exposed
Over 50%
4 Destroyed Buff Surface loss Almost total Minor Distorted
exposed

9 FIRE 28
 Damage assessment
Site inspection
 Firstly, the condition of any plaster or other surface finishes
is noted.

 Surfaces may be sooty but otherwise unaffected by the fire.

 As the effects become more severe, the finishes start to

peel until they are completely lost or destroyed.
◦ Likewise, during the fire the concrete surface will progressively craze until it is lost.

 The concrete color may also be affected during the fire,

generally changing with increasing temperature from normal
through pink to red, then whitish grey and finally buff.

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 The p i n k and red colours relate to the
presence of small amounts of iron in some
aggregates, which oxidise and can be indicative of
particular temperatures.

 It is important to note that many concreting

aggregates do not change colour at temperatures
normally encountered in an ordinary fire.

 Although colour change clearly indicates a particular

temperature, the absence of colour change does not mean that the
temperature was not reached.

9 FIRE 30
Other site investigation
requirements

 Cores - or, if these are not possible, lump samples

- should be taken for laboratory investigation
from a number of locations representing the
range of damage classifications observed and
should include comparable unaffected concrete as
a control.

 Laboratory petrographic examination is necessary

to support and enhance the site findings.

9 FIRE 31
 The depth of cover to any reinforcement must be
measured during site investigation so that, once
the laboratory investigation has been completed,
it will be possible to determine whether the steel
is likely to have been affected by the fire.

 It is also possible to take steel samples for

laboratory analysis, but this is usually necessary
only if the visual inspection reveals a cause for
concern.

9 FIRE 32
Laboratory investigation: petrographic examination

 Petrographic examination should be conducted by someone

experienced in the technique and in examining fire-
damaged concrete, and is best performed in accordance
with ASTM C856.

 An initial low- to medium-power microscopic examination

of all cores allows the selection of those for thin-section
preparation and more detailed examination with a high-
power microscope.

9 FIRE 33
 As well as identifying physical distress such as
cracking, this examination can identify features
that allow temperature `contours' to be plotted
on the concrete.

 Binocular examination allows contours to be

plotted that equate to around 300°C provided
the aggregate has become pink, the colour
deepening to brick-red between 500°C and
600°C.

9 FIRE 34
 Any flint in the concrete “calcines” (loses its water
component, about 4 %) between 250°C-450°C,
while at similar temperatures the normally
featureless cement paste begins to show patchy
anisotropy with yellow-beige colours.

 Thus, careful and informed petrographic examination

can usually reveal an approximate 500°C contour.

 Cracking of the surface of the concrete occurs at

relatively low temperatures, but deep cracking
indicates around 550°C was reached.

9 FIRE 35
 Quartz alters structurally at 575°C resulting in a
volume increase that typically causes extensive
fine microcracking.

 As most concrete contains quartz, an approximate 600°C

contour can usually be plotted.

 The change in colour from brick-red to grey also

begins at 600oC.

 Limestone aggregate calcines at 800°C and

concrete becomes a buff colour by 900°C.

9 FIRE 36
 Laborator y investigation:
 Another laboratory technique sometimes used to assess
the temperature reached is thermo-luminescence.

 Based on the fact that quartz emits visible light when

heated to 300-500°C, unless it has already been heated to
that temperature.

 It is be possible to establish the depth to which the

concrete has been affected.
 The usefulness of this method is somewhat reduced by its limited availability and
cost.

 However in special circumstances, thermo-luminescence is

invaluable, despite the expense.

9 FIRE 37
 Overall assessment
 The visual damage classification prepared on site provides the
basis for a repair strategy.
 However the laboratory investigation - particularly the
petrographic temperature contouring - provides critical
information about the depth of any fire damage, and any
classification of damage should be reviewed after the laboratory
investigation.

Critical temperatures (T) are as follows:

 T >300oC: considerable loss in strength of the concrete.
 T : 200-400°C: considerable loss of strength of prestressed
steel.
 T >450oC: loss of residual strength of cold-worked steel.
 T >600°C: loss of residual strength of hot-rolled steel.

9 FIRE 38
 Options for repair &
requirements for demolition

 Detailed information about repair is given in CSTR

33.

 A brief guide to the level of repair required can be

based on the final classification of damage.

 On the basis of practical experience, Figure 9.3

has been devised to illustrate the types of repair
that might be appropriate for different classes of
damage.
9 FIRE 39
 World Trade Centre - New York -
Some Engineering Aspects
General Information:
Height: 417 meters and 415 meters
Owners: Port Authority of New York and New Jersey.
(99 year leased signed in April 2001 to groups including
Westfield America and Silverstein Properties)
Architect: Minoru Yamasaki, Emery Roth and Sons
consulting
Engineer: John Skilling and Leslie Robertson of
Worthington, Skilling, Helle and Jackson
Ground Breaking: August 5, 1966
Opened: 1970-73; April 4, 1973 ribbon cutting
Destroyed: Terrorist attack, September 11, 2001

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9 FIRE 48
 Figure 9.3. Simplified illustration of
Classification and Repair.
Some peeling of Total loss of finish,
finishes, slight Whitish grey colour,
crazing & minor
Extensive crazing,
spalling. Class 1:
rapair slight Considerable spalling up to
damage. 50% reinforcement exposed,
minor cracking, class 3
Much loss of finish, pink colour,
crazing, up to 25% reinforcement
principal repair involving
exposed, strengthening.

class 2: restoring cover to

Plaster & paint reinforcement with general
Finishes destroyed, buff
intact, repairs reinforced with light
colour, surface lost, almost all
fabric
surface spalled, over 50%
Class 0: clean & reinforcement exposed, major
redecorate if cracking.
required.
Class 4: major repair
involving strengthening or
demolition & replacement.

9 FIRE 49
 EXAMPLE from Cyprus

9 FIRE 50
TRNC Ministry of Culture & Education,
Turkish Cypriot State Theatre Hall

Theatre Hall- after fire, 2006

9 FIRE 51
State Theatre Hall /Lefkoşa-After fire in 1999 – duration 20 minutes only
9 FIRE 52
State Theatre Hall /Lefkoşa-After fire in 1999

9 FIRE 53
State Theatre Hall /Lefkoşa-After fire in 1999

9 FIRE 54
State Theatre Hall /Lefkoşa-After fire in 1999

9 FIRE 55
State Theatre Hall /Lefkoşa-After fire in 1999

9 FIRE 56
State Theatre Hall /Lefkoşa-After fire in 1999

9 FIRE 57
State Theatre Hall /Lefkoşa-After fire in 1999

9 FIRE 58
Theatre Hall after fire, 2006

9 FIRE 59
Theatre Hall after fire, 2006

9 FIRE 60
 More examples

9 FIRE 61
Caracas Fire

9 FIRE 62
Taiwan

9 FIRE 63
Interstate bank

9 FIRE 64
Madrid

9 FIRE 65
Madrid

9 FIRE 66
Meridian Plaza

9 FIRE 67
 The Windsor Building Fire, Madrid, Spain
Huge Fire in Steel-Reinforced Concrete Building
Causes Partial Collapse

Time Collapse Situation

1:29 East face of the 21st floor collapsed
1:37 South middle section of several floors above the
21st floor gradually collapsed
1:50 Parts of floor slab with curtain walls collapsed
2:02 Parts of floor slab with curtain walls collapsed
2:11 Parts of floor slab with curtain walls collapsed
2:13 Floors above about 25th floor collapsed Large
collapse of middle section at about 20th floor
2:17 Parts of floor slab with curtain walls collapsed
2:47 Southwest corner of 1 ~ 2 floors below about
20th floor collapsed
2:51 Southeast corner of about 18th ~ 20th floors
collapsed
3:35 South middle section of about 17th ~ 20th floors
collapsed Fire broke through the Upper Technical Floor
3:48 Fire flame spurted out below the Upper Technical
Floor
4:17 Debris on the Upper Technical Floor fell down

9 FIRE 68
Sunday, Jan. 10, 2016 photo, the burned hulk of The Address Downtown is seen in Dubai, United
Arab Emirates. Skyscraper fires like the blaze that struck the 63-story luxury hotel in Dubai on
New Year’s Eve, 2016, swiftly turning it into a towering inferno, are not that rare. The fire in Dubai
has raised new issues about the safety of exterior sidings put on high-rise buildings in the United
Arab Emirates and around the world. (AP Photo/Jon Gambrell)

9 FIRE 69
 Assessment of fire damaged structures
BRE Information Paper IP 24/81

Buildings, or portions of buildings, look a sorry sight after a fire:

 some may have collapsed and be only twisted ruins, others may have
mainly suffered damage from smoke.
 Between these extremes there is a wide range of degree of damage.

 Where there is no visible damage such as charring of timber, spalling of

concrete or distortion of steelwork, there is generally little likelihood of
permanent loss of strength of the material although this cannot always
be assumed.

 It is essential to do a thorough inspection of the complete premises in

order to ensure that damage,
◦ eg through thermal expansion or water leakage, has not occurred in those parts not
directly involved in the fire.

9 FIRE 70
 TEMPERATURES REACHED IN FIRES
AND ESTIMATION OF FIRE SEVERITY

 Standard fire resistance tests determine the period of time

for which elements of building construction should fulfill
their design function of load bearing and / or fire separation
while exposed to heat in accordance with a predetermined
time / temperature relationship is an idealisation of an
uncontrolled growing fire in a room.

◦ It assumes an unlimited supply of fuel and its burning rate, being

controlled mainly by ventilation condition, follows a predictable
pattern.

9 FIRE 71
 In real incidents, fire may have remained localised for a
long time, the rate of temperature rise may have been faster,
or slower, than in the standard test, or extensive spread may
occur.
◦ Different rooms and different parts of a building may have suffered
different fire intensities.
 It is important to determine as accurately as possible the
condition of each element of the structure following the
fire.
 Particular attention also needs to be given to those features
which are an indirect consequence of the fire,
 eg forces not considered in the orginal design may have been generated by
expansion or damage to other members.

9 FIRE 72
 Table 1 gives an approximate guide to the
estimation of temperatures attained by various
components in building fires, from an
examination of debris.


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9 FIRE 74
 The colouration of concrete at various depths is a clue to
both the maximum surface temperature attained (Figure 1)
and the time / temperature experience (Figure 2).

 Care and experince are required when considering spalled

surfaces.
◦ The interpretation will depend on judgement as to whether spalling
occured during the period of maximum heat exposure or
subsequently, and as to the allowance to be made for this factor.
 The extent of the change of colour varies with the type of
fine and coarse aggregate but changes will occur to some
degree for all types of concrete.
 Wetting the affected concrete surface will enhance the
colours. Some types of stone shows similar changes.

9 FIRE 75
9 FIRE 76
9 FIRE 77
 The depth of charring from the orginal surface gives a
rough guide to the duration of fire attack on a timber
member.

 Timber will char at a steady rate on each face exposed

to heating.
 The rates which are given in Table 2 relate BS 476:Part 8
conditions and allow an assessment to be made in
terms of an equivalent fire resistance time.
 Increased values are appropriate for the rate of
depletion of columns and beams when exposed on all
faces.
 Due allowance must be made for areas which have been allowed to smoulder
after the fire has been controlled.

9 FIRE 78
 With palsterboard of 9.5 mm thickness,
the unexposed paper face will be charred if
there has been a fire equivalent in severity
to about ten minutes under BS 476: Part 8
conditions.

9 FIRE 79
 MAIN EFFECTS OF HIGH
TEMPERATURE ON MATERIALS
 any material heated above 200oC is likely to
show significant loss of strength which may,
or may not, be recovered after cooling.

9 FIRE 80
 Brickwork
 Clay bricks withstand temperature in the region of 1000oC or
more without damage but under very severe and prolonged heating
the surface of a brick may fuse.
◦ Spalling can occur with some types of brick particularly of the performed type.

 A load bearing wall exposed to fire will suffer a progressive

reduction in strength due to deterioration of the mortar in the same
manner as concrete.

 Severe damage is more likely to be caused by the expansion or

collapse of other members.
◦ Small expansion cracks in the structure may collapse up after the building has
cooled.

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Cast Iron
 Because of their heavy mass and low design stresses, cast
iron members generally show good performance in fires.

 The member should be carefully examined for signs of

cracking. A permanent loss of strength can occur when
the temperature of a cast-iron member exceeds 600oC
but because of their large thermal mass this requires a
fire of such severity that rebuilding is probably necessary
anyway.

9 FIRE 82
 Concrete
The behaviour of concrete structures in fire is discussed elsewhere5.6. The pink
colour change at around
 300oC which occurs with most natural aggregates used in the UK is very
important as it coincides with the temperature below which the compressive
strength is not significantly reduced. Higher temperatures up to approximately
500oC or above may be endured by lightweight concrete before significant
loss of strength occurs. In a concrete member, only the temperature of the
outside layers increases initially and the temperatures of the internal concrete
will be comparatively low, unless the fire exposure is prolonged, as concrete is
a poor conductor of heat (Figure 2). Temperature rise at a greater depth than
indicated in that figure will occur if extensive spalling occurs during fire
exposure. Natural aggregate concretes heated to
 300oC or above, and lightweight aggregate concretes heated to 500oC or
above, may need to be replaced in
 critical areas during reinstatement.

9 FIRE 83
Steel Reinforcement

 Looses strength at high temperatures as

discussed below. Loss in effective concrete
section in prestressed members may significantly
alter the intended design stress profile in addition
to permitting a higher temperature in any
adjacent steel tendons with consequent increased
loss.

9 FIRE 84
 Hollow clay tiles and woodwool cement
slabs (used in floors)
 may be damaged but when these are used as formers
for the structural concrete section they have no
structural significance and the damage can be ignored.

 Plaster
 Plaster tends to be loosened in a fire and may require
replacement for this reason.
 If it is severely stained by smoke which is resistant to
washing, it will probably be more satisfactory to replace
the plaster than to overpaint the smoke stains.

9 FIRE 85
 Steel
 When a building has been exposed to fire the structural steelwork may
suffer from any or all of the following effects:
 a) expansion of heated members relative to others which restrain this
movement, leading to distortion of the heated member or its neighbours
particularly at connection,
 b) increased ductility, reduced strength and plastic flow while metal is at
a high temperature,
 c) change, persisting after cooling, in the mechanical properties of the
metal.
◦ The coefficient of linear thermal expansion of steel is nominally 14 X 10-6/0C. In a fire
this may be sufficiently small for it to be taken up by elastic deformation, expansion
joints etc, or may permanent distortion of the framework or extensive cracking of
bearing walls.


9 FIRE 86
 The temperature at which the flow stress of mild steel falls to the
design stress is generally taken to be about 550oC -
◦ for a design factor of safety of about 2. At stress levels less than the maximum
permitted in design, this “critical” temperature will rise. The effects of constraints
and continuity can also raise the “critical” temperature.

 Unless temperatures of 650oC are exceeded, there will be no

deterioration in the mechanical properties of mild and micro-
alloyed steels on cooling.

 After heating cold-drawn and heat-treated steels lose their

strength more rapidly than mild and micro-alloyed steels and, on
cooling from temperatures in excess of about 300oC and 400oC
respectively, part of this loss of strength will be permanent.

9 FIRE 87
 In general, any steel members which have not
distorted can be considered to be substantially
unaffected by the heat to which they have been subjected.
However, it must be realized that in certain cases some degradation in
strength will have occurred.

 Members should be examined for cracks around rivet or

bolt holes if expansion movements have taken place.

 It will usually however, be the cleast, rivets and especially

bolts which will have suffered and not the main members.

 Decision on reinstatement may need to be taken in the light

of expert engineering and metallurgical advice.

9 FIRE 88
 Tiles and slates
 Clay tiles that have survived a fire unbroken may be reused, as can
slates that appear sound.

 Timber
 Behaviour of timber in fire is predictable with regard to the rate of
charring and loss of strength.
 It is free from rapid changes of state and has very low coefficient of
thermal expansion and thermal conductivity.
 For practical purposes, it can be assumed that full strength is
maintained below the charred layer.
 For assessment of fire resistance of structural timber, BS 52683
provides calculation methods for flexural, compressive and tensile
members.

9 FIRE 89
9 FIRE 90
Woodwool cement

 The material below the crumbly fire damaged

layer will be sound.

 If a sufficient depth of sound material is present

the slabs may be retained.

9 FIRE 91
ASSESMENT OF EXTENT OF DAMAGE
AND POSSIBLE REINSTATEMENT

 A design procedure for the reinstatement

of fire damaged buildings is given elswhere
also a case study on building reinstatement.

 The problems caused by fire will of course

include damage from water used in fire
fighting as well as from heat and smoke.

9 FIRE 92
 The initial consideration of fire damaged premises should
classify the damage to building components in terms of
superficial, repairable or requiring replacement.

 In any investigation, it is essential to determine the exact

form of construction of each element.

 Specialist advice may be needed in cases where there is

much borderline repairable damage or where the
construction is sophisticated.

 The final decision on the extent of repair or demolition

may include consideration of costs, time and possible
improvements.

9 FIRE 93
 REFERENCES
1. British Standars Instution. Fire tests on building materials and structures. Test methods and criteria for the fire resistance
of elements of building construction. BS 476: Part 8:1972 London. BSI 1972
2. Bessey GE. Investigation on building fires. Part 2. The visible changes in concrete or mortar exposed to high temperatures.
National Building Studies Technical Paper No 4 . London, HMSO, 1950.
3. British Standards Instution. The structural use of timber. Fire resistance of timber structures. Method of calculating fire
resisitance of timber members. BS 5268 : Part 4. 1:1978. London, BSI,
 1978.
4. Lie T T. Fire and Buildings. Applied Science Publisher Ltd. London, 1978.
5.Asseement of fire damaged concrete structures and repair by gunite. Concrete Society Technical
 Report No 15. The Concrete Society. London, 1978.
6. Green J K. Some aids to the assessment of fire damage. Concrete. January, 1976.
7. Smith C I et al. The reinstatement of fire damage steel framed structures. British Steel Corporation
 Research Organization. Teeside Laboratories. 1980.
8. Malhotra H L and Morris W A. An investigation into the fire problems associated with woodwool permanent shuttering
for concrete floors. Building Research Establishment Current Paper CP68/78. Borehamwood, 1978.
9. Marchant E W ( Editor). A complete guide to fire and buildings. Medical and Technical Publishing
 Co Ltd. Lancaster, 1972.

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