ME 212 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS - I

CREDIT HOURS: THEORY = 3 HRS

 COURSE OUTLINE

Strength of materials
Andrew Pytel
Ferdinand L. Singer
TENTATIVE COURSE SCHEDULE

WEEK No. LECTURE TOPIC

1 Simple stress: Normal stresses
2 Simple stress: Shear stress
3 Thin-walled pressure vessels
4 Simple strain: Stress-strain diagram
5 Simple strain: Hooke’s law: Axial and shearing deformations
6 Simple strain: Poisson’s ratio: Biaxial and triaxial deformations
7 Thermal stresses
8 Thermal stresses
Mid Term Exam
9 Torsion
10 Torsion
11 Shear and moment in beams
12 Shear and moment in beams
13 Stresses in beams
14 Stresses in beams
15 Beam deflections
16 Beam deflections
 STUDENT PERFORMANCE EVALUATION / GRADING

• Assignments, Quizzes, Mid Term and the Final examination will evaluate student
progress.

FINAL GRADE

The final grade will be determined by averaging each section and assigning them the
following weights:

Quizzes ............................12.5%
Assignments………………12.5%
Mid Term Examination……25%
Final Examination .............50%
---------------------------------------------------------
Total ............................. 100%
 PARTICIPATION

The course consists of a three-hour lecture per week.

Attendance for all lectures is strongly advised.
Any student whose attendance is less than 75% will be dropped
from the course for insufficient participation.
 What is Mechanics?

Mechanics is the branch of physical science which deals with the

state of rest or motion of bodies that are subjected to the action of
forces.

Mechanics is the study of forces that act on bodies and the resultant
motion that those bodies experience.

With roots in physics and mathematics, Engineering Mechanics is

the basis of all the mechanical sciences.

Physical science is the study of the physical world around you.

Any of several branches of science, such as physics, chemistry, and
astronomy, that study the nature and properties of energy and
nonliving matter.
 Mechanics
Applied Mechanics is subdivided into two parts:

1. SOLID MECHANICS
Solid mechanics is usually subdivided into further two streams i.e.
a) Mechanics of rigid bodies (i.e. objects that do not get deformed when forces are applied)
Mechanics of rigid bodies is further divided into two parts:
i) Statics
ii) Dynamics
Statics deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics deals with objects in motion.
b) Mechanics of deformable bodies
The mechanics of deformable solids which is branch of applied mechanics is known by several names i.e. strength
of materials, mechanics of materials etc.

2. FLUID MECHANICS
 Rigid body

• The term "rigid body" refers to a system with any number of

particles, but which are constrained not to move relative to each
other. That is, a rigid body does not deform.

• All particles in a rigid body remain at a fixed distance from one

another even after applying forces.

• A rigid body is nothing but a solid body of finite size in which change
in original shape (deformation in other words) is not allowed.
 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials
Definition: Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with
the behaviour of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading.

Compression Tension (stretched) Bending Torsion (twisted) Shearing

Most fundamental concepts in Mechanics of Materials are stress and strain.

 Mechanics of materials
The fundamental areas of engineering mechanics are

1. Statics

2. Dynamics

3. Strength of materials (Mechanics of materials)

Statics and dynamics are devoted primarily to the study of the external effects of forces on rigid bodies i.e. bodies for which
the change in shape (deformation) can be neglected.

In contrast, strength of materials deals with the relation between externally applied loads and their internal effects on bodies.
Moreover, the bodies are no longer assumed to be rigid; the deformations, however small, are of major interest.

The purpose of studying strength of materials is to ensure at that the structure used will be safe against the maximum internal
effects that may be produced by any combination of loading.

The main objective of the study of the mechanics of materials is to provide the future engineer with the mean of analyzing
and designing various machines and load-bearing structures.

Both the analysis and the design of a given structure involve the determination of stress and deformations.

An understanding of how bodies respond to applied loads is the main area of emphasis in the Mechanics of materials.
 STRESS
• Stress can be defined as a measure of the internal reaction to an externally applied
force. It is due to the internal resistance of particles inside the body.
• When some external forces are applied to a body, then the body offers internal
resistance to these forces. This internal opposing force per unit area is called 'stress'.
It is denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma) and its formula is as following

(External)

(Geometry)
The unit of stress is the units of force divided by the units of area.

In SI, force is measured in newtons (N) and area is measured in

square meters (m2). Thus the units for stress are newtons per square
meter (N/m2). Frequently, one newton per square meter is referred to
as one Pascal (Pa).

In US customary units, force is measured in pounds (lb). With area

measured in square inches, the units for stress are pounds per
square inch (lb/in2), frequently abbreviated as psi.

Since kip is often used to represent kilopound (1 kip = 1000 lb, 2 kips
= 2000 lb etc). ksi is used an abbreviation for 1 kip per square inch
(1000 lb/in2), for example, 8 ksi = 8000 psi.
Area &Volume

Here is a cube which is being cut across. Such a

‘cut-across’ is called a cross section.
 Concept of Stress
The fundamental concepts of stress can be illustrated by considering a straight bar with a constant cross-sectional area A that
is loaded by axial forces F at the ends, as shown in the Figure.

The external load causes internal forces called stresses. To investigate the internal stresses produced in the bar by the axial
forces, we make an imaginary cut at section c-c. This section is taken perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar.

We now isolate the part of the bar to the left of the cut as a free body. The tensile load F acts at the left hand end of the free
body; at the other end are forces representing the action of the removed part of the bar upon the part that remains.
These forces are continuously distributed over the cross section. The intensity of force (that is, the force per unit area) is called
the stress and is commonly denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma). Assuming that the stress has a uniform distribution over the
cross section (see Figure), we can readily see that its resultant is equal to the intensity σ times the cross-sectional area A of
the bar.

Furthermore, from the equilibrium (balancing of forces) of the body shown in Figure, it is also evident that this resultant must
be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied load F. Hence, we obtain
 Strength
It is a material property which defines the maximum stress a body can
withstand before failure occurs.
It is the resistance offered by a material when subjected to external loading.
So, stronger the material the greater the load it can withstand.
Depending upon the type of load applied the strength can be tensile,
compressive, shear or torsional.
 Sample Problem #01 Axial loading - The applied forces are
collinear with the longitudinal axis of
the member. The forces cause the
member to either stretch or shorten.

To calculate the stresses, we must first determine the axial load in each section.

In order to determine the stresses we first choose an imaginary cut perpendicular to the axis of the
bar.

The free-body diagrams have been drawn by isolating the portion of the bar lying to the left of
imaginary cutting planes.

Identical results would be obtained if portion lying to the right of the cutting planes had been
considered.
( ) R x  Fx  9000  4000  5000( )

( ) R x  Fx  9000  2000  4000  7000()

 Revision from Engineering Statics
Calculating the Magnitude of the Perpendicular Components

• If a vector of magnitude v and makes an angle θ with the

horizontal then the magnitude of the components are:
• x = v Cos θ
y=v Sin θ
• y = v Sin θ y
θ
x=vx Cos θ
 Proof:
x y
Cos  Sin  
v v
x  vCos y  vSin
 Revision

Sine Function: Sin(θ) = Perpendicular / Hypotenuse

Cosine Function: Cos(θ) = Base/ Hypotenuse
Tangent Function: tan(θ) = Perpendicular / Base
Revision

Circumference = 2 • π • radius = π • diameter

Circle Area = π • r² = ¼ • π • d²
 Revision from Engineering Statics
A structure is in equilibrium when all forces or moments acting
upon it are balanced. This means that each and every force acting
upon a body, or part of the body, is resisted by either another equal
and opposite force or set of forces whose net result is zero.

• Sum of All Vertical Forces (Fy) = 0

• Sum of All Horizontal Forces (Fx) = 0
• Sum of All Moments (∑M) = 0
Sample Problem #02

6 1mm  10 3 m
AAB  800mm  800 10 m
2 2

(1mm) 2  (10 3 mm) 2

6
AAC  400mm  400 10 m
2 2
1mm2  10 6 m 2

Maximum safe value of W  ?

 AB  110MPa  110 106 N / m 2

 AC  120MPa  120 106 N / m 2
Sample Problem #02
PACCos60  PABCos40  0..........1)
PAC Sin 60  PAB Sin 40  W  0.....2)

1)  PAC Cos60  PABCos40

PABCos40
PAC  ..............3)
Cos60

Putting value of PAC from equation - 3 into equation - 2

2)  PAC Sin 60  PAB Sin 40  W  0
PAC Sin 60  PAB Sin 40  W
PABCos 40
Sin 60  PAB Sin 40  W
Cos60 Cos40  0.766
PAB (
Cos 40
Sin 60  Sin 40)  W Cos60  0.5
Cos60
Cos 40 Sin 60  Sin 40Cos60
Sin 40  0.642
PAB ( ) W
Cos60 Sin 60  0.866
0.766  0.866  0.642  0.5
PAB ( ) W
0. 5
0.663  0.32
PAB ( ) W
0.5 PABCos40
0.983 3)  PAC 
PAB ( ) W Cos60
0. 5
PAB (1.966)  W 0.508W  0.766
W
PAC 
PAB  0.5
1.966
PAB  0.508W PAC  0.778W
Sample Problem #03

P  400kN  400 103 N

N N
  120M 2  120 106 2
m m
Inside diameter  d 2  100mm  100 10 3 m
Outside diameter  d1  ?

SOLUTION :

P

A
P
A

400 103
A
120 106
A  3.333 10 3 m 2
From figure, we have

 
A d12  d 22
4 4

A (d12  d 22 )
4

3.333 10 3  [d12  (100 10 3 ) 2 ]
4

3.333 10 3  [d12  0.01]
4
4
(3.333 10 3 )  d12  0.01

4
d12  (3.333  10 3 )  0.01

d12  0.0142
d1  0.119m
Sample Problem #04

Homogeneous bar : Material should be same throughout all

parts of the bar

m  800kg
 Br  90 MPa
 St  120 MPa
LBr  4m
LSt  3m
ABr  ?
AS t  ?
 SOLUTION:
To find forces PA and PB, we consider the free body diagram

 Fy  0 MA  0
PA  PB  W W (5)  PB (10)  0
PA  PB  (800  9.8) N 5 5
PB  W  (800  9.8)  3920 N
10 10
PA  PB  W
PA  W  PB
PA  (800  9.8)  3920
PA  7840  3920
PA  3920 N

PA PB
 Br   St 
ABr ASt
PA 3920 N PB 3920 N
ABr    43.6 10 6 m 2 ASt    32.7 10 6 m 2
 Br 90 106 N  St 120 106
N
m2 m2
ABr  43.6mm2 ASt  32.7mm2
Sample Problem #05

P  3000lb
LSt  2 ft
LAl  3 ft
LBr  2.5 ft
A  0.5in 2
 St  ?
 Al  ?
 Br  ?
First we consider the Steel section. The axial load is 4P(Tension)

PSt  4P  4(3000)  12000lbs

PSt
 St 
ASt
12000
 St   24000 Psi
0.5
For Aluminum section. The axial load is also 4P(Tension)

PAl  4P  4(3000)  12000lbs

PAl
 Al 
AAl
12000
 Al   24000 Psi
0.5
For Bronze section. The axial load is also 3P(Tension)
PBr  3P  3(3000)  9000lbs
PBr
 Br 
ABr
9000
 Al   18000 Psi
0.5
 Types of stresses
When we apply some external force on the body, some amount of internal force which is equal but opposite in direction is
generated, this internal force per unit area is called stress. We denote this by Greek symbol σ and its formula is as following
σ = F/A
In SI, the units are Pascal (Pa).

The important types of simple stresses are

1. Tensile stress
2. Compressive stress
3. Shear stress

Tensile and compressive stress is causes by forces perpendicular to the areas on which they act.
For this reason, tensile and compressive stresses are frequently called normal stresses.

When we apply two equal forces but opposite in direction on a rod towards outside, it elongates and the type of stress
generate at that time is called tensile stress.

When we apply two equal forces but opposite in direction on a rod in such a way that it compresses the rod, then the type of
stress generates at that time is called compressive stress.
 Shear stress
Shear stress is caused by forces acting along or parallel to the area resisting the forces.

For this reason, a shearing stress may be called a tangential stress.

A shearing stress is produced whenever the applied loads cause one section of a body to tend to slide past its adjacent
section.
Shear stress is denoted by Greek letter τ and the formula is as following

τ =Tangential force/ Resisting area

Several examples are shown in Figure 1-11.

In (a) the rivet resists shear across its cross-sectional area, whereas in the clevis at (b) the bolt resists shear across two
cross-sectional areas;

Case (a) may be called single shear and case (b) double shear.

In (c) a circular slug is about to be punched out of a plate; the resisting area is similar to the milled edge of a coin. In each
case, the shear occurs over an area parallel to the applied load. This may be called direct shear in contrast to the induced
shear that may occur over sections inclined with the resultant load, as was illustrated in Figure 1-4a.
Shear : load parallel to area

Normal : load perpendicular to area

 .
A shearing stress is produced whenever the applied loads cause one section of a body to tend to slide past its adjacent section
Rivets resist shear across its cross-sectional area.
 In Figure (c) a circular slug is about to be punched out of a plate; the resisting
area is similar to the milled edge of a coin. In this case, the shear occurs over
an area parallel to the applied load.

Die

Slug

Slug: a piece of metal shaped like a coin

Sample Problem #06

d  Diameter of hole  20mm  20 10 3 m

t  Thickness of plate  25mm  25 10 3 m
  Shear strength  350MN / m 2
v  Shear force  ?

SOLUTION :
v
 Shear area =
A Circumference of the
punched circle multiplied by
the specimen thickness
Area  Circumfere nce  Thickness
A  D  t

v v
 
A Dt
 v  Dt 
v   (20 10 3 )( 25 10 3 )(350 106 )
v  549778.7 N  550kN
Sample Problem #07

  Shear strength  40ksi

Maximum compressiv e stress    50ksi
Thickness of plate  t  ?
Diameter of hole  d  ?
a) t  ? for d  2.5 inch
b) d  ? for t  0.25 inch Slug
a) t  ? for d  2.5 inch

P
v v   P  A
  A
A dt
d 2
A
4
A  dt
d 2
P 
4
v  dt

Pv
d 2
  dt
4
d 2  4dt
d 2 d 50  2.5
t     0.78inch
4d 4 4  40
b) d  ? for t  0.25 inch

P
P P   P  A
  A
A dt
d 2
A
4
A  dt
d 2
P 
4
P  dt

d 2
  dt
4
4t 4(40)(0.25)
d    0.8inch
 50
Sample Problem #08

P  400kN
  300MPa
d ?

P 
 A d2
2A 4

P P
 
 
2 d2 d2
4 2
2P
 2
d
d 2  2 P Clevis: A U-shaped metal piece with holes in each end through
2P 2(400 10 ) 3 which a pin or bolt is run, used as a fastening device.
d2    0.848 10 3
  (300 10 )
6
The bolt is subjected to shear by the tensile forces in the flat
bar and the clevis.
d  0.848 10 3  0.0291m The bolt resists shear across two cross-sectional areas; it may
be called double shear.
 Strain
Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend to change the body’s shape and size.
These changes are referred to as deformation.

Load will cause all material bodies to deform and, as a result, points in the body will
undergo displacements or changes in position.

Normal strain is a measure of the elongation or contraction of a small line segment in the
body.

To obtain the unit of deformation or strain ε, we divide the elongation δ by the length L in
which it was measured, thereby obtaining
The Tension and Compression Test
To properly design a structure or mechanical component, the engineer must understand
and work within the characteristics and limitation of the material used in the component.

Material such as steel, aluminum, plastics and wood respond uniquely to applied load
and stresses. To determine the strength and characteristics of materials such as these
requires laboratory testing.

One of the simplest and most effective laboratory tests to obtain engineering design
information about a material is called the tension test.
One of the simplest tests for determining mechanical properties of a material is the
tensile test. In this test, a load is applied along the longitudinal axis of a circular test
specimen.

The applied load and the resulting elongation of the member are measured.

To perform a tension or compression test a specimen of the material is made into a

standard shape and size.

Before testing, two small punch marks are identified along the specimen’s length.
Measurements are taken of both the specimen’s initial cross-sectional area, Aₒ, and the
gauge-length distance Lₒ between the punch marks.

For example, when a metal specimen is used in a tension test it generally has an initial
diameter of dₒ = 13 mm and a gauge length of Lₒ = 50 mm.
In order to apply an axial load with no bending of the specimen, the ends are usually are
gripped between the jaws of a testing machine.

A testing machine like the one shown in figure is used to stretch the specimen at a very
slow, constant rate until it reaches the breaking point. The machine is designed to read
the load required to maintain this uniform stretching.

At frequent interval during the test, data is recorded of the applied load P, as read on the
dial of the machine or taken from a digital readout.

Also, the elongation δ = L – Lₒ between the punch marks on the specimen may be
measured using a caliper or a mechanical or optical device called an extensometer.

For example:
 specimen

An extensometer is a device that is

used to measure changes in the length
of an object.

Electronic Extensometer

Machine
 Stress-Strain Diagram
From the data of a tension or compression test, it is possible to compute various values
of the stress and corresponding strain in the specimen and then plot the results. The
resulting curve is called the stress-strain diagram.

Using the recorded data, we can determine the nominal or engineering stress by
dividing the applied load P by the specimen’s original cross-sectional area Aₒ. This
calculation assumes that the stress is constant over the cross section and throughout the
region between the gauge points, we have

Likewise, the nominal or engineering strain is found directly from the stain gauge
reading or by dividing the change in the specimen’s gauge length by the specimen’s
original length Lₒ. Here the strain is assumed to be constant throughout the region
between the gauge points. Thus
A tension test was performed on a steel specimen having an original
diameter of 12.5 mm and gauge length of 50 mm. Using the data listed in the
table, plot the stress–strain diagram
The corresponding values are plotted as a graph, for which the vertical axis is
the stress and horizontal axis is the strain, the resulting curve is called a
conventional stress-strain diagram. This diagram is very important in
engineering since it provides the means for obtaining data about a material’s
tensile or compressive strength without regard for the material’s physical size
or shape i.e. its geometry.

No two stress-strain diagrams for a particular material will be exactly the same, since the results
depend on such variables as the material’s composition, microscopic imperfections, the way it is
manufactured, the rate of loading, and the temperature during the time of the test.
We will now discuss the characteristics of the conventional stress-strain curve as it pertains to steel, a commonly used material for
fabricating both structural members and mechanical elements.

From this curve we can identify four different ways in which the material behaves, depending on the amount of strain induced in
the material.

1) Elastic behavior
2) Yielding
3) Strain hardening
4) Necking

Other concepts developed from the stress-strain curve are the following:

1) Proportional limit
2) Elastic limit
3) Yield Point
4) Ultimate stress or Ultimate strength
5) Rupture strength
 Elastic Limit
 Elastic Limit
 Elastic Limit
 Proportional Limit
From the origin O to a point called the proportional limit shows that stress-strain diagram is a straight line.

From this we deduce the well known relation, first postulated by Rober Hook in 1678, that Stress is proportional to strain.

In this range, the stress and strain are proportional to each other, so that any increase in stress will result in a proportionate
increase in strain.

Beyond this point, the stress is no longer proportional to strain.

Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension (not to scale)

 Elastic limit
If the stress slightly exceeds the proportional limit, the material may still respond
elastically; however, the curve tends to bend and flatten out as shown. This continues
until the stress reaches the elastic limit. Upon reaching this point if the load is removed
the specimen will still return to its original shape.

The point beyond which the material will not return to its original shape when unloaded
but will retain a permanent deformation called permanent set.

Maximum stress to which a material may be subjected and still return to its original
length upon release of the load.
Notice elastic limit and proportionality limits are different! Some materials are still
elastic beyond the linear (proportional) section of the curve.
But in all practical cases they are same.
 Yielding
A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in permanent deformation.
This behavior is called yielding for ductile materials.

The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress or yield point and the
deformation that occurs is called the plastic deformation.

Once the yield point is reached, the specimen will continue to elongate (strain) with any
increase in load.

It is a point on stress-strain curve at which there is a sudden increase in strain without a

corresponding increase in stress.

Not all materials have a yield point.

 Strain Hardening
When yielding has ended, a further load can be applied to the specimen, resulting in a
curve that rises continuously but becomes flatter until it reaches a maximum stress
referred to as the ultimate stress or Ultimate strength. The rise in the curve in this
manner is called strain hardening.

Throughout the test, while the specimen is elongating, its cross-sectional area will
decrease. This decrease in area is fairly uniform over the specimen’s gauge length, even
up to the strain corresponding to the ultimate stress.
 Necking
At the ultimate stress, the cross-sectional area begins to decrease in a localized region of
the specimen, instead of over its entire length.

As a result, a constriction or ‘neck’ gradually tends to form in this region as the specimen
elongates further.

Since the cross-sectional area within this region is continually decreasing, the smaller the
area can only carry an ever-decreasing load. Hence the stress-strain diagram tends to
curve downward until the specimen breaks at the fracture stress.
 Rupture Strength
The rupture strength is the stress at failure.

For structural steel it is somewhat lower than ultimate strength because the rupture strength is computed by dividing the rupture
load by the original cross-sectional area, which, although convenient, is incorrect. The error is caused by a phenomenon known
as necking.

For a ductile material, up to the ultimate strength, the deformation is uniform along the length of the bar. At the maximum stress
localized deformation or necking occurs in the specimen and the load falls off as the area decreases. This necking elongation is
non uniform deformation and occurs rapidly to the point of failure.

The breaking strength which is determined by dividing the breaking load by the original cross-sectional area is always less than
the ultimate strength.

For a brittle material, the ultimate strength and breaking strength coincide.
•
Stress-Strain Diagram
The Load-deformation plot does not provide material properties.
• But, when converted to stress-strain plot it provides all the information
needed. Notice elastic limit and proportionality limits are different! Some materials are still
elastic beyond the linear (proportional) section of the curve.
But in all practical cases they are same.
Notice ultimate stress is higher than
fracture stress. This is because this
graph do not plot the true stress
accounting for the reduction in area
due to necking. This is called
engineering stress. The true stress
actually is higher at fracture.
Hooke’s Law: Axial Deformations
Let us now return to a consideration of the striaght-line portion of the stress-strain diagram as shown in figure.

From the origin O to a point called the proportional limit shows that stress-strain diagram is a straight line.

From this we deduce the well known relation, first postulated by Rober Hook in 1678, that Stress is proportional to
strain.

The slope of that line is the ratio of stress to strain. It is called the modulus of elasticity and is denoted by E.

which is usually written in the form

  E
In this form it is known as Hooke’s law.

Modulus of elasticity E is the ratio of unit stress to unit strain within the proportional limit of a material in tension
or compression.
   E
A convenient relation of Hooke’s law is obtained by replacing σ by its equivalent P/A and replacing ε by δ/L.

The above equation expresses the relation among the total deformation δ, the applied load P, the length L, the cross sectional
area A, and the modulus of elasticity E.

Note that the above equation is subject to the following restrictions:

•The load must be axial.

•The bar must have a constant cross-section and be homogeneous.
•The stress must not exceed the proportional limit.
We already know Hooke’s law, but what does it tell us?

Pl  l 
  P 
AE  AE 
Modulus of elasticity is a mechanical property that indicates the stiffness of a material.
Materials that are very stiff, such as steel, have large values of E (Est = 200 GPa), whereas
spongy materials such as vulcanized rubber may have low values (Er = 0.70 MPa).

The property of a material by virtue of which a body returns to its original shape after
removal of the load is called elasticity.

  E
It must always be remembered, though, E can be used only if a material has linear-
elastic behavior. Also, if the stress in the material is greater than proportional limit, the
stress-strain diagram ceases to be a straight line and is no longer valid.
 Hooke’s Law: Shearing Deformations
An element subject to tension undergoes an increase in length, whereas an element subject to shear does not change
the length of its sides, but undergoes a change in shape form a rectangle to a parallelogram.

s
The average shearing strain is found by dividing δs by L. tan  
L
s
For very small angle tan    
L
More precisely, the shearing strain is defined as the change in angle measured between two lines which were initially
perpendicular.

The relation between shearing stress and shearing strain assuming Hooke’s law to apply to shear is

G = Modulus of elasticity in shear, more commonly called the modulus of rigidity

Modulus of elasticity in shear G is the ratio of unit shear stress to unit strain with the proportional limit of a material in
shear.
We can define shear strain exactly the way we do longitudinal strain: the ratio of
deformation to original dimensions.

In the case of shear strain, though, it's the amount of deformation perpendicular to a
given line rather than parallel to it.

The ratio turns out to be tanɣ, where ɣ is the angle the sheared line makes with its
original orientation.

Note that if ɣ equals 90 degrees, the shear strain is infinite.

Length, L  30'  30  12  360"

Load , P  500lb

 max  20ksi  20 103 psi

Elongation,  max  0.20"

E  29 106 psi

Diameter , d  ?
Solution :

Area of Steel wire :


A d2
4
4A
d2 

4A
d


First we find the area for maximum allowable stress, so we have

P

A
P
A

500
A
20 103
A  0.025inch 2
 To find the area for maximum allowable elongation
  E
P 
E
A L
PL
A
E
500  360
A
0.20  29  106
A  0.031inch 2

 A  0.031inch 2

4A
d

4(0.031)
d

d  0.1986inch
A  0.5inch 2
E  10 106 psi
 ?
 Solution :
We first compute the deformation separately in all sections.
Consider the left section.
The axial load in this section is 6000lb (Tension). So the deformation will be increase in length
and may be taken as positive.

PL
1 
AE
6000(3 12)
1 
0.5 10 106
1  4.32 10 3 inch
The axial load for middle section is 1000lb compression. So the deformation will be decrease
in length and may be taken as negative.

PL
 2  ( )
AE
1000(5 12)
 2  ( )
0.5 10 106
 2  0.012inch
The axial load for section-3 is 4000lb tension. So the deformation will be increase
in length and may be taken as positive.

PL
3 
AE
4000(4 12)
3 
0.5 10 106
 3  3.84 10 3 inch

So the total deformation is

  1   2   3
  4.32 103  0.012  3.84 103
  3.84 10 3 inch
 ABr  650mm 2 AAl  320mm2
ASt  480mm 2

EBr  83GPa E Al  70GPa

ESt  200GPa
LBr  2m LAl  1.5m
LSt  1m
( Br ) max  120MPa ( Al ) max  80MPa
( St ) max  140MPa

 t  3mm
P?
First we find the deformation in each section in term of P

For steel the axial load is P (Tension)

PL AAl  320mm2
 St   ASt  480mm2 ABr  650mm2
AE E Al  70GPa
ESt  200GPa EBr  83GPa
P (1) LAl  1.5m
 St  6
LSt  1m LBr  2m
480 10  200 109 ( Al ) max  80MPa
( St ) max  140MPa ( Br ) max  120MPa
P
 St 
96000 103
 St  (1.04 10 8 P)m

For Bronze the load is 2P( Compressio n)

PL
 Br  
AE
2 P ( 2)
 Br  
650 10 6  83 109
 Br  (7.4 10 8 P)m

 t   St   Br   Al
For Aluminum the load is 2P (Tension)

 Al  
PL  t  (1.04  7.4  13.38) 10 8 P
AE
30 10 3
P
2 P(1.5)
 Al 
320 10 6  70 109
7.04 10 5
 Al  (13.39 10 8 P)m
P  4.2 10 4 N  42kN
For steel section : For Bronze section : For Aluminum section :
P P P
 St  ( ) St  Br  ( ) Br  Al  ( ) Al
A A A
P  (A) St 2 P  (A) Br 2 P  (A) Al
P  140 106  480 10 6 1
P  (120 106  650 10 6 ) P
1
(80 106  320 10 6 )
P  67.2kN 2 2
P  39kN P  12.8kN

So the smallest value of P is 12.8kN which will fulfill all the conditions.
Fortunately, many engineering materials exhibit a linear elastic range of response to loading. Also, many engineering materials
can be assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic within that linear range. Let us review the definitions of the terms above:

Linear - straight line relationship between load and deformation (or stress and strain),

Elastic - deformation is fully recoverable when the loading is removed,

Homogeneous - the structure or composition is uniform (constant) throughout the material,

Isotropic - the properties are the same in all directions.

Although most materials do not strictly satisfy the requirements to be homogeneous, isotropic, linear-elastic materials, many are
sufficiently close to allow us to assume they act that way. For example, steel has some directional properties imparted to it in the
rolling or drawing process yet we can generally assume it is essentially isotropic.

Materials which are assumed to satisfy the four definitions above are frequently referred to as simply "elastic" materials. Therefore
if no modifiers are added to the term we shall assume "elastic" implies that the material is a "homogeneous, isotropic, linear-elastic
material".

In the study of elastic materials, we find the material response equations (stress-strain equations, also called constitutive
equations) are generally given in terms of the elastic constants:

E = modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus)

G = modulus of rigidity (shear modulus).

These elastic constants are usually defined under very simple loading conditions. A uniaxial stress state is used to define the
constants E and v, while pure shear is used to define G. However, these same constants appear in the more general stress-strain
relationships for elastic materials: the generalized Hooke's law.
 Poisson's ratio
When a deformable body is subjected to an axial tensile force, not only does it elongate, but it also
contracts laterally.
For example, if a rubber band is stretched, it can be noted that both the thickness and width of the
band are decreased.
Likewise, compressive force acting on a body causes it to contract in the direction of the force yet
its sides expand laterally.
Poisson showed in 1811 that the ratio of the unit strains in these directions is constant for stresses
within proportional limit.
Accordingly, this ratio is named after him; it is denoted by nu and defined by

The negative sign is used here since longitudinal elongation (positive strain)
causes lateral contraction (negative strain), and vice versa.
When a deformable body is subjected to an axial tensile force, not only
does it elongate, but it also contracts laterally.

lateral strain

axial strain
Likewise, compressive force acting on a body causes it to
contract in the direction of the force yet its sides expand laterally.

lateral strain

axial strain
Poisson’s Ratio
• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

x  x  y z  0
E

• The elongation in the x-direction is accompanied by a contraction

in the y and z directions. Assuming that the material is isotropic
(no directional dependence).
• No or zero stress in the y and z direction does not mean that
there will be no strain in the y and z direction.

 y  z  0

• Poisson’s ratio is defined as

lateral strain y 
   z
axial strain x x
  y  v x
  z  v x
Strain in x - direction due to  x is positive
 x  E x

 x  x
E

Strain in x - direction due to  y is negative

Lateral Strain 
  x
Longitudin al Strain y
y
 x   y  
E

Total Strain in x - direction  Strain in x - direction due to  x  Strain in x - direction due to  y

x y
x  
E E
Sample Problem #
A bar made of steel has the dimensions as shown in Figure - 1. If an axial force of
P = 80 kN is applied to the bar, determine the change in its length and the change
in the dimensions of its cross section after applying the load. The material behaves
elastically. Use ʋst =0.32 and Est = 200 GPa.

P  80kN  80 103 N Figure - 1

  0.32
ESteel  200GPa  200 109 N / m 2
Lx  100mm  100 10 3 m
Ly  50mm  50 10 3 m
Lz  1.5m
z  ?
x  ?
y  ?
The normal stress in the bar is

P 80 103
z   3 3
 16 106 N / m 2
A (50 10 )(100 10 )

  E


E
z 16  106
z    8  10 5

Esteel 200 109



L
  L
 z   z Lz  8 10 5 1.5  1.2 104 m
 x y
  
z z
 x   z  0.32(8 105 )  2.56 105
 y   z  0.32(8 105 )  2.56 105



L
  L
 x   x Lx  (2.56 10 5 )(100 10 3 )  2.56 10 6 m
 y   y Ly  (2.56 10 5 )(50 10 3 )  1.28 10 6 m
 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
• Pressure vessels are the containers for fluids under high pressure.
• Cylindrical or spherical vessels are commonly used in industry to serve as boilers or
tanks. When under pressure, the material of which they are made are subjected to a
loading from all directions.
• They are used in a variety of industries like:
• Petroleum refining
• Chemical
• Power
• Food & beverage
• Pharmaceutical
Thin wall pressure vessels (TWPV) are widely used in industry for storage and
transportation of liquids and gases when configured as tanks.

Spherical Cylindrical
A gauge pressure (pressure above
atmospheric pressure) P is developed
within the vessel by a contained gas or
fluid, which is assumed to have negligible
weight.
Here only the loadings in
the horizontal direction
are shown.

(The internal gauge pressure

developed by the contained gas or
fluid)
 F F
p 
A A
F  pA F  A
Sum of All Horizontal Forces (FH) = 0
This stress is called the longitudinal stress because it acts parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the cylinder.
t

t
 F F
p 
A A
F  pA F  A
This stress is usually called the tangential stress because it acts tangent to the surface of
the cylinder; other common names are circumferential stress, hoop stress, girth stress.
Girth: The distance around something; the circumference. Hoop: A circular or ring like object
Comparing the equations for longitudinal and tangential stress shows
that the longitudinal stress in one-half the value of the tangential stress.

pD 1 pD 1
l   ( )  t
4t 2 2t 2
  t  2 l
 Spherical Pressure Vessel
Using an analysis similar to that for cylinders, we can easily derive the expression for the
stress in the wall of a thin-walled spherical pressure vessel.

Sphere: A three-dimensional
surface, all points of which are
equidistant from a fixed point.
Sample Problem #09

D  400mm  400  10 3 m
t  20mm  20 10 3 m
p  4.5MN / m 2
a ) t  ?  l  ?
b) p  ?
c)

pD pD
t  l 
2t 4t
4.5  400 10 3 4.5  400 10 3
t   45MPa l   22.5MPa
2  20 10 3 4  20 10 3
Sample Problem #10
Sample Problem #11
Sample Problem #12

D  450mm  450 10 3 m

t  20mm  20 10 3 m
l  2m
p?
 l  140MPa
 t  60MPa

pD
t  t 
pD
2t 4t
p  450 10 3 p  450 10 3
60  3
 5.33MPa 140   24.89MPa
2  20 10 4  20 10 3
Mid Term Exam - Paper Pattern
First attempt Q. # 1 (MCQ) on separate Answer Sheet which shall be taken
back after 20 minutes.

Q. 1 Multiple Choice Questions (20 MCQS)

Q. 2 + Q.3 + Q.4
Stresses
Strains
Hooke’s law: Axial and shearing deformations,
Poisson’s ratio
Thin-walled pressure vessel