Transformer

TRANSFORMER
MAINTENANCE
INTRODUCTION
Transformer is a static piece of apparatus by
means of which electric power is transferred
from one circuit to another without change in
frequency.
It can raise or lower the voltages with a

corresponding decrease or increase in current.
It is accomplished by Faraday’s law of

electromagnetic induction.
A transformer consists of two conducting coils
having mutual inductance.
1. PRIMARY WINDING
which receives electric power from the supply.
2.SECONDARY WINDING
which delivers to the load.
The coils are wound on a laminated core of

magnetic B material.
It operates the mutual inductance between the two

circuits linked by a common magnetic flux through
a path of low reluctance as shown in figure (1.1).
THE EMF EQUATION FOR THE WINDINGS OF
TRANSFORMER
E = 4.44FNBm A
N - Number of turns in
primary/secondary
F - Frequency in hertz
E - E.m.f. induced in primary/
secondary
Bm - Maximum flux density in
weber/m2
A - Area of cross-section of the
core in m2
TRANSFORMATION RATIO
Es Ns Ip
--- = --- = --- = K
Ep Np Is
Ns > Np, K > 1 is known as step up

transformer.
Ns < Np, K < 1 is known as step down
transformer.
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Input VA = Output VA
VpIp = VsIs
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
CLASSIFIED AS BASED ON THEIR FUNCTION AND

APPLICATION:
1. POWER TRANSFORMER
a) a. step up the voltage.
b) b. step down the voltage.
2. AUTOTRANSFORMER
It is used for linear voltage variations.
3.INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER
a) It is used for measuring high voltages and high currents
b) It is used for protection purposes.
DIFFRENT TYPE OF TRANSFORMERS ARE
INSTALLED IN 210MW THERMAL POWER
STATION
MAIN GENERATOR TRANSFORMER (GT)
• The power transformer is used for stepping up

the generator voltage for transmission into
the grid.
• The Voltage level (15.75/220KV or 15.75 /

400KV).
UNIT AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER
(UAT) / UNIT SERVICE TRANSFORMER
(UST)
The unit auxiliary transformer to

individual unit auxiliaries is a step
down transformer.
Generator terminal voltage to unit

auxiliary voltage (15.75/6.6KV).
STATION SERVICE TRANSFORMER (SST) /
STATION AUXILIARY TRANSFORMER (SAT)
• For the supply to the common auxiliaries of
the station.
• station service transformer supplies to the
unit auxiliaries at the time of start up and
serves as reserve supply during failure of UAT.
• This is a step down transformer with
transformation ratio of grid voltage to the
station auxiliary supply level. (220/6.6KV)
EXCITATION TRANSFORMER
• The excitation power is taken from generator
output and fed to the excitation transformer
which steps down to the required voltage for
SCR bridge and then is fed through the field
breaker to generator field.
• It is a dry type cast coil transformer and is
most suitable for static excitation system.
• This transformer must supply the rated
excitation voltage /current continuously and
must be capable of supplying the ceiling
current and the ceiling excitation voltage
INTERCONNECTING TRANSFORMER/AUTO
TRANSFORMER
• This type of transformers has been provided
with three windings. The third winding is called
as tertiary winding.
• Tertiary winding is an additional winding

provided in the power transformers in addition
to its normal winding.
• It is an auxiliary Delta connected winding.

Tertiary winding has to be provided for 3 phase
3 limb core type star connected transformer
FUNCTIONS OF TERTIARY WINDING
TERTIARY WINDING IS USED
• To reduce the third harmonic contents of the
output voltage thereby stabilising the potential of
the neutral point.
• To suppress third harmonic current which causes
communication interference.
• To permit the transformation of unbalanced 3-
phase load.
• To reduce system zero sequence impedance for
effective grounding where solid grounding is not
provided.
• To supply the additional auxiliary loads.
POWER TRANSFORMER
1. SINGLE-PHASE TYPE
The single-phase units are smaller, easier to
handle and transport but one single unit
needs to be kept as spare.
2.THREE-PHASE TYPE.
Three-phase units are larger in size. On the
other hand three phase units are cheaper and
occupy less space for given output.
• The Modern power transformer is of very
high efficiency, approaching a value of 99%
being static equipment.
TRANSFORMERS CLASSIFIED
1.Core type
2.Shell type
• As per core construction. Both the types

could be used for Power station service with
appropriate design.
• The core type transformer is preferred due to
economic consideration.
TRANSFORMERS FURTHER CLASSIFIED
1. Outdoor type
2.Indoor type.
• In indoor type transformer, transformer oil

should not be used due to the possibility of
accidental fire hazard.
• Indoor type transformer may have to be

necessarily dry type (air-cooled) or synthetic
liquid cooled type transformer.
• The class of insulation used in power
transformer is Class “ A ”insulation.
• The maximum permissible total temperature

of Class A insulation is 105oC.
• Normally ambient temperature will be

considered as 40oC and hence maximum rise
in temperature will be about 65oC (Hot spot
temp.)
THE LOSSES
1.Iron loss
2. copper loss
• In the core and windings are transferred to the

oil in the form of heat in the oil cooled
transformer .
• The oil is in turn cooled by the ambient air

either by natural or forced cooling.
BRIEF DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION
MAIN PARTS OF TRANSFORMER
• Core
• Windings & Tapping
• Insulation
• Tanks
• Radiators
• Conservator and Breather
• Explosion vent
• Bushing
• Cable sealing box
• Tap changers
• Buchholz relay(above 500 KVA transformer)
TYPICAL POWER TRANSFORMER 400 KVA AND 250 MVA, 15.75/230KV
ARE SHOWN IN FIG.
CORE
• Core forms the magnetic circuit of a
transformer.
• In order to keep the eddy and hysteresis losses

to a minimum.
• core is made up of thin laminations of cold

rolled grain oriented silicon steel (CRGO)
which has high permeability.
• low loss and higher saturation flux density.

• Laminations are insulated from each other
with the coating of inorganic insulation film
over the steel.
• The thickness of lamination varies from

0.28mm to 0.35mm.
• The laminations are cut according to the size

and they are annealed before using for
reducing the stress.
• Magnetisation of the lamination produces a
phenomenon known as magnetostriction i.e.
expansion and contraction of the core
material.
• This change in dimension is not directly

proportional to the flux, but generally follows
the alternating magnetisation and
demagnetisation of the core.
• Due to magetostriction vibration is produced
that causes audible noise.
• Magnetostriction is the inherent property of

the core material and varies with different
grades of iron.
• The CRGO Steels are made in various grades

like M4, M5, M6 and M7, while low loss HI-B
steels are available in grades like M-0H, M-
1H, M-2H, M-3H and M-4H
• The cold rolled grain oriented steel has a
special feature that losses in the direction of
the grain orientation are much lower than in
the direction perpendicular to the grain.
• Therefore the interleaved core construction

which was earlier used with hot rolled steel
has become obsolete .
• To use stepped core construction or mitred

core construction which has joints cut at 45o
• Fig. (2.3) shows interleaved and mitred core
construction.
• It can be seen that, with mitred joints the flux
flows along the grains in almost the entire
core resulting in lower loss.
• However to impart sufficient mechanical
rigidity to the mitred core
• The mitred joints of each layer is interleaved
to some extent by the next layer thus avoiding
formation of butt joints throughout the core.
WINDINGS
• Generally the current rating
• Short circuit strength
• Temperature rise
• overload condition
• Impedance voltage strength
• Transportation decide the type and
arrangement of the winding to be used.
THERE ARE 3 TYPES OF
TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
1. Helical type winding

2. Spiral type winding
3. Continuous disc type winding
HELICAL TYPE WINDING
• It is used for low voltage and high current
coils.
• This type of winding is normally used for LV
side of the transformer with thick cross
sectional area.
SPIRAL TYPE WINDING

• It is used for medium current applications i.e.
smaller capacity transformer.
• Normally the distribution transformers will
have spiral type winding.
CONTINUOUS DISC WINDING
• It is preferable for high voltage and low

current applications.
• This type of winding is normally used for HV

side of power transformer.
• The number of discs in each coil of the

transformer depends upon the system
voltage.
In all the transformers the LV winding is placed
nearer to the core and HV winding is placed
over the LV winding.
• The requirement of insulation between LV

winding and earth is very less when
compared to HV winding to earth.
• In view of this the low voltage winding is

placed nearer to the core irrespective of the
number of windings.
• Axial cooling ducts on the inside and outside
surface of the coils are created by dove tail
strips and spacers, which are locked in dove
tail blocks.
• Radial cooling ducts are created by dove tail
blocks. When more than one conductors are
used in parallel it becomes necessary to
interchange this radial position to avoid
flow of circulating currents due to varying
leakage flux in radial build up of the coil.
• In disc type of coils the transposition is done
at each section crossover and whereas in
helical coils type
• The coils are transposed at equally spaced
TAPPING
• The tap changing is used to adjust the
terminal voltage with in the statutory limits.
• It is also used to control the active and
reactive power flow in the system.
There are two types of tap changers.
1.off load tap changers
2.on load tap changers for varying
output
voltage.
Tapping is normally provided in the high
voltage side.
• Depending upon the tapping range, tapping is
either placed at the centre of high voltage coil
so that it provides electro magnetic balancing
on the windings or by a separate tapping coil.
• In case of on load tap changing having higher
tapping range, a separate tapping coil is
invariably provided to limit the short circuit
forces.
• Placement of tapping coil with respect to main
coil (i.e. either inside the main coil or outside)
changes the pattern of impedance at extreme
taps.
• It is necessary to specify the impedance at
extreme taps for any transformer intended for
INSULATION
• Major insulation consists of the insulation
between the high voltage and low voltage
windings of the same phase and from the
windings to the ground.
• The insulation between different windings and
inner winding to core consist of a number of
pressboard cylinders separated by oil ducts.
• Pressboard barriers are provided between
windings of different phases and between the
windings and tank.
• Adequate number of angle rings and angle
washers depending on voltage class are provided
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATERIALS
1. Thermally upgraded Kraft paper cylinders

2. Synthetic resin bonded pressboard cylinder
3. High density organic sticks bonded with
synthetic resin
4. Pressboard sheets for phase insulation
5. Collars.
MINOR INSULATION
• This is the insulation provided between

adjacent turns in a winding and between
different sections of the same windings.
• The different materials used for minor

insulation are pressboard spacers, cellulose
tape and synthetic enamel wire.
PHASE-TO-PHASE INSULATION
• This is the insulation provided between the
windings of different phases. (Examples:
Heavy Kraft paper or pressboard).
• The paper used is electric grade Kraft paper
having high chemical purity, high mechanical
and electrical strength and free from
conducting particles.
• Further reinforced insulation is used for end
windings to provide protection against
voltage surges (Refer fig.6).
• Nowadays, transformer oil itself is used for
phase to phase insulation instead of Kraft
paper.
TRANSFORMER TANK
TRANSFORMER TANKS ARE CLASSIFIED AS
• Plain tank
• Shaped tank
• Bell-shaped tank
• Corrugated tank
• Stub end type tank
PLAIN TANK
• Plain tanks are rectangular box type in
shape.
• These tanks may some times also have
rounded corners.
• These are commonly used for small and
medium rating transformers.
• This type of construction may however
be uneconomical for larger sized tanks.
SHAPED TANK
• The transformer more economical, so that

the inside volume of the tank is less.
• The shaped tanks have the tank walls shaped

towards HV-leads side
• where electrical clearances required are
comparatively much larger and flat wall
towards the LV side.
• Structurally the curved portions in the tank

wall act as stiffener against the short circuit
forces.
• The shaped tank construction is decided by

the electrical layout considerations of
transformer windings and terminal gear/tap
changer mounting arrangements.
BELL-SHAPED TANK
• To construct the tank in two parts, so that if
the top portion is removed, the height of the
lower part is such that the core and the
windings of the transformer are easily
accessible for inspection and maintenance.
• This arrangement is preferable at site, where
it is not possible to lift the core and windings
together from the tank for inspection and
maintenance work. Such tanks are known as
bell type tanks.
CORRUGATED TANK
• The vertical ribs to form corrugation on the

plates are made by suitably folding the
plates.
• These corrugations play the role of stiffeners

and this process reduces welding by replacing
the welding of vertical ribs on the tank walls.
• Normally this type of tank is made with
corrugated plates.
• The corrugation acts as horizontal stiffeners at

the bottom.
• This is to provide necessary structural strength

against bending stresses.
• Another advantage of corrugated tank wall is

that, it provides additional cooling area.
STUB-END WAGON TYPE TANK
• It may not be possible to transport,

• very large rated power transformer
• The height of the girder on which the
consignment rest adds to the overall
transport height.
• The large-size transformers are not supported
on such girders.
• The inner surface is shoot-blasted and
painted with oil resistive paint.
• These tanks are of special construction and
designed to withstand the dynamic loads during
transit in addition to static loads.
• Tap changers are mounted either inside the tank

or in a separate pocket depending upon the type
of tap used.
• The tap changer is normally mounted inside the

tank. Tank bodies are of rolled steel plate.
• The outer surface is treated with anti-corrosive

material together with a weather resisting paint.
RADIATORS
• The radiator consists of a bank of flat tubes,

which gives away the heat of the oil to
atmosphere.
• Oil is circulated inside the radiator tubes and
air is circulated around the radiator tubes.
• Both oil and airflow will be either natural or
forced circulation.
• The radiator could be either mounted on the
transformer tank walls or separately.
CONSERVATOR OR EXPANSION CHAMBER AND
BREATHER
• To provide for the expansion or contraction of
oil in the transformer tank, a conservator is
provided over the tank.
• By having a conservator, the surface area of oil
exposed to atmospheric air is also reduced.
• The conservator is filled with oil to a specified
level, indication being provided by gauge glass
and or other level indicating devices.
• The air space in the conservator is in
communication with
atmosphere through a breather which is filled
• The pipe connecting the conservator and the
transformer tank .
• Inside the conservator to prevent condensed
moisture entering from conservator to the main
tank.
• The conservator capacity is about 8 to 10% of
the main tank.
• The breather is used to dry the air that enters in
to the conservator during expansion and
contraction of the oil.
• Air entering the breather is first drawn through
an oil seal and passes upward through silica gel
crystals to the conservator tank.
• The oil seal prevents all the dust particles
from the atmospheric air and the silica gel
absorbs moisture when the transformer is
breathing.
• The silica gel used is an indicating type silica
gel.
• The dry silica gel will have Sky-blue colour and
when saturated with moisture it changes in to
pink colour.
• There are also power transformers, which do
not have a breather. Instead the top portion
of the conservator is filled with an inert gas
(nitrogen) under pressure and sealed.
EXPLOSION VENT
• This pressure-relieving device is mounted on
the tank cover or on the side of the tank to
protect against high-pressure build up inside
the transformer tank.
• This consists of a vertical pipe work closed by

a diaphragm made up of thin Bakelite sheet
(mica or glass may also be used) at the top.
• This diaphragm bursts or slides out in the

event of abnormal pressure build up inside
tank.
• A diverter plate is fitted at the bottom of the
explosion vent.
• In the event of failure of the explosion vent, the

diverter plate prevents the liberated gases
entering in to the explosion vent pipe.
• This plate diverts the gases towards buchholz

relay. A bypass is provided to allow the oil to
enter the vent and equalise the pressure on
each side of the diverter plate.
BUSHINGS
• The leads of H.V. and L.V. coils are brought
out through bushings, which are made of
porcelain, the conductor being in the centre.
• The space between conductor and insulator
is filled with an insulating medium like oil, air
or gas.
• This type of bushings is generally limited to
the system voltage of 36KV, beyond which
they become very bulky. (Refer fig.2.7).
• For higher voltages condenser bushings are
used.
CONDENSER BUSHINGS
1. In the porcelain type of bushing, the
concentration of electric stress does not
permit efficient use of insulating material.
2. This difficulty is overcome by using the
principle of condenser.
3. The insulation wall thickness is divided into a
number of capacitors by concentric
conducting cylinders.
4. The concentric conducting cylinders are
made up of aluminium foil.
5. This type of arrangement reduces the size of
the bushings.
The core insulation of a condenser bushing
generally consists of the following types: -
1. Synthetic resin bonded paper

2. Oil impregnated paper
3. Resin impregnated paper
SYNTHETIC RESIN BONDED PAPER (SRBP)
BUSHING
• In this type, the central metallic tube is tightly
wound with resin coated paper tape with
interleaving of layers of condenser foils at
specified diameters.
• The resin used on the paper is of
thermosetting type and is therefore wound
under temperature and pressure.
• The core surface is treated with special anti-
tracking epoxy varnish to provide glossy finish
and to prevent moisture ingress.
• The annular space between condenser core
and porcelain insulator is filled with
Oil impregnated paper (OIP) and resin
impregnated paper (RIP) bushing
• In the OIP type, the condenser core is built-up

using Kraft paper on a central metallic tube,
whereas in the RIP type, crepe Kraft paper
impregnated with epoxy resin is used for
making the core.
• The condenser core with or without porcelain

is dried under vacuum and deaerated.
• Further the condenser core is degassed and
impregnated with oil.
• The bushing are hermetically sealed. The

partial discharge level of these bushings is
much lower compared to SRBP bushing.
(Refer 2.8)
• A chamber is provided at the top of the

bushing to indicate the level of oil in the
bushing.
CABLE SEALING BOX
 It is used for termination of leads of low
voltage and high voltage.
 A cable sealing box is designed for the
purpose of receiving and protecting the ends
of the cables and it contains a suitable
insulating medium.
 The insulating medium in a cable sealing box
can be air or bituminous compound.
 This type of cable sealing box is generally used
for lower capacity indoor type transformer.
TRANSFORMER OIL
INTRODUCTION
The insulating oil is mainly mineral oil
obtained from the fractional distillation of
crude petroleum. This fluid serves three
primary purposes: -
• Provides dielectric strength for the
transformer insulation system
• Provides efficient cooling
• Protects the transformer core and coil
assembly from chemical attack
PROPERTIES of Oil
They are divided into three types: -
1. Physical property
2. Electrical property
3. Chemical property
PHYSICAL PROPERTY
DENSITY
 This has special significance when

transformer is operated in a very low
temperature zone.
The maximum value of density of the oil fixed

at
27 º C ensures that water in the form of ice
present in oil remains at the bottom and does
not tend to float up to a temperature of about
INTERFACIAL TENSION (IFT)
This is a measure of the molecular attractive
force between oil and water molecules at
their interface.
This provides a means of detecting soluble

polar contaminants and products of
deterioration, which decrease the molecular
attractive force between oil and water.
The IFT gives an indication of degree of

sludging of oil.
MOISTURE CONTENT
• The amount of free and dissolved water

present in the oil is its moisture content and is
expressed in ppm (parts per million by weight,
i.e.mg/kg).
• Presence of moisture is harmful since it

adversely affects the electrical characteristics
of oil and accelerates deterioration of
insulating paper.
Table shows physical constants of oil
Sl.No. Property Value
1. Permittivity 2.2(-0.001)
2. Specific heat 2.06kJ/kg0c(0.0038)
3. Thermal conductivity 0.13 W/m0c
4. Coefficient of expansion 0.00078 / 0c
5. Mean density correction factor 0.00065 / 0c

over the normal range
operating temperature
FLASH POINT
• It is the temperature at which oil gives so
much vapour that this vapour, when mixed
with air, forms an ignitable mixture and gives
a momentary flash on application of flame
under prescribed conditions.
• A minimum flash point is specified in order to

prevent the risk of fire that might result by
accidental ignition.
• Minimum specified flash point is 1400c as per

VISCOSITY
• It is a measure of oil resistance to continuous
flow without the effect of external forces.
• The oil must be mobile, as heat transfer in
transformers occurs mainly by convection
current.
• Since viscosity increases with decrease in
temperature, it is necessary that viscosity be
as low as possible at low temperatures.
• Maximum kinematic viscosity at 27oC is 27
Cst (Centistokes) as per IS 335.
POUR POINT
The temperature at which oil will just flow
under the prescribed conditions is known as
the pour point.
If the oil becomes too viscous or solidifies, it

will hinder the formation of convection
currents and thus cooling of the equipment
will be severely affected.
Pour point is the lowest temperature at

ELECTRICAL PROPERTY
Electric Strength (breakdown voltage)
• BDV is the voltage at which breakdown

occurs between two electrodes in oil when
the oil is subjected to an electric stress under
prescribed conditions.
• Electric strength is the basic parameter for

insulation system design of a transformer.
It serves to indicate the presence of
contaminating agents like moisture, fibrous
materials, carbon particles, precipitable
sludge and sediment.
It is usually expressed in kV across a specified

spark
The gapof
value under certain
electric conditions.
strength has meaning only
in relation to the test method to which it
refers.
The test is widely used to assess the suitability

of insulating oils for service.
It is a test, not of the quality of oil, but of its
freedom from contaminants especially
moisture and fibrous substance. Test: IS
6792-1972
The BDV test kit consists of a cell made of

glass or plastic, which is transparent and non-
absorbent.
It will have an effective volume between 300

to 500 ml. Copper, brass, bronze or stainless
steel polished electrodes of spherical shape
One of the electrodes is adjustable to
maintain the gap of 2.5 mm between the
electrodes.
The gap between them shall be set to an
accuracy of 0.1mm by means of thickness
gauges.
The axis of the electrodes is immersed to a
depth of approximately 40mm.
One of the electrodes is earthed. The
minimum BDV values are as under:
• New unfiltered oil 30 kV (rms.) (If this value is
not attained, the oil shall be filtered)
DIELECTRIC DISSIPATION FACTOR (tan)
1. The dielectric dissipation factor of oil is the

ratio of the power dissipated in the oil in
watts, to the product of the effective voltage
and current in volt-amperes of sinusoidal
supply.
2. This is numerically equivalent to the cosine of

the phase angle or the sine of the loss angle.
3. Dielectric dissipation factor is a numeric or
dimensionless quantity.
4. It may be expressed as a numeric value or as

percentage, for example 0.010 or 1.0
percent.
5. Power factor test readily respond to the

presence of contaminating material which
might have been picked up by the insulating
oil or derived from the oil, due to improper
manufacture or during use of the equipment.
6. It also indicates the presence of soluble
varnishes, resins and moisture.
7. The test is influenced considerably by the

temperature, testing voltage and frequency.
8. The Indian standard prescribes an average

stress of 200V/mm for power factor
measurements at power frequency. The
standard also specifies a maximum value for
tan as 0.005 when measured at 90oC.
9. The power factor is measured by using a
schering bridge with suitably designed cell.
10.In a perfect insulating materials I leads V by 90o.

But normally I does not lead exactly by 90oC.
This angle varies according to the quality of
insulation, moisture content, contamination,
heterogeneity, ageing of the material etc.
11.The ratio Ia/Ic gives a measure of the dielectric

loss in insulation and it is known as the dielectric
loss angle or dielectric dissipation factor.
If angle  is defined as 90-. Since  = 90-, sin = sin (90-)
i.e., Sin = Cos,
The dielectric loss VIa = VI cos
= VI Sin
I = Ic / Cos
VIa = V (Ic / Cos)* Sin
= VIc (Sin / Cos)

12. Since the tangent of the dielectric loss angle does
not depend upon the capacitance of the specimen,
the same value of tan will be obtained for various
sizes of components made from the same material.
13. The power factor angle (or dielectric loss angle)

remains practically constant up to a certain value of
voltage.
14. At some point A, called the ionisation point the

value of Tan sharply rises with increasing voltage.
15. This is due to irreversible ionisation occurring in the

insulation at the critical voltage Vc.
16. The inflection point of the curve corresponding to the
ionisation voltage Vc is termed as critical point and for a
satisfactory bushing or winding it should not occur
below a value which has a reasonable margin over the
working voltage.
17. The shape of the tan curve with increasing voltages

gives an indication of the quality of insulation value of
the material.
18. The value of tan increases with temperature.

CHEMICAL PROPERTY
Neutralisation value (Total acidity)
• Any good unused oil should be free from
mineral acids and virtually free from organic
acids, to safeguard the equipment from
damage through corrosive attack.
• Neutralisation value is the measure of the

total acidity of the oil. It is expressed as the
mg. of potassium hydroxide (KOH) per gm of
oil.
• For good oil, total acidity value should not

Inorganic acidity
It is the measure of inorganic acids present and is
expressed as mg. of potassium hydroxide required
neutralising these acids in one gram of the oil.
Oxidation stability
This is the measure of neutralisation value and
sludge after simulating the actual service conditions
of transformer oil.
The oxidation stability test is essential for new oil

also and oxidation stability indicates the presence of
natural inhibitors, which impart anti-oxidation
SEDIMENT AND PRECIPITABLE SLUDGE
These are oil deterioration products or
contaminants, which are insoluble after dilution
of the oil with n-heptane under prescribed
conditions.
However, precipitable sludge is soluble in the

solvant mixture of equal parts of toluene,
acetone and alcohol but sediment is insoluble in
this solvent mixture.
These contaminants are determined for oil in

service. Oil is considered unsatisfactory for use if
sediment or precipitable sludge is detected.
CORROSIVE SULPHUR
Crude petroleum usually contains sulphur
compounds, most of which are removed
during the refining process.
This test is designed to detect any traces of

free corrosive sulphur that may be present in
the oil.
Presence of corrosive sulphur in the oil will

result in pitting and black deposit on the
surface of bare copper conductor used in
transformer, which will adversely affect the
dissipation of heat and consequently the
and the extract is given below for reference.
EXTRACTED FROM ISI: 335 : 1983
SCHEDULE OF CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSFORMER OIL
Sl.No. Characteristics Requirements Method of test
1 Appearance Clear, transparent and free from Representative sample of
suspended matter or sediments the oil shall be examined in
a 100mm thick layer at 270c
2 Density at 270 C, Max. 0.89 g/cm3 IS:1448[P:16]-1977

(hydrometer method )
3 Kinematic viscosity at 270C max 27 centistrokes (27 cst) IS:1448[p:25]-1976
determine of kinematic and
dynamic viscosity
4 Interfacial tension at 270c, Min 0.04 NM IS:6104:1971(interfacial
tension of oil against water
by ring method
5 Flash point min 1400C IS:1448(p:21)1970
6 Pour point max -90c IS:1448(p:10) 1970
7 Neutralisation value
8 Corrosive sulphur Non-corrosive IS:6792-1972
9 Electric strength
(min break down voltage ) 30KV(rms)
a) New unfiltered oil If the above value is not attained
b) After filtration the oil shall be filtered and the final
value should be 50KV(rms.)
10 Dielectric dissipation factor (tan) at .005 IS: 6262-1971

900C ,Max.
11 Specific resistance
(resistivity) 30x1012 ohms cm
a) at 900C,min 500x1012 ohms cm
b) at 270C,min
12 Oxidation stability
a) Neutralisation value after 0.40 mg KOH/g
oxidation, Max. 0.10 percent by weight
b) Total sludge, after oxidation,
max.
14 Presence of oxidation inhibitor The oil shall not contain
antioxidant additives
15 Water content,max 50 ppm
For further details IS:335:1983 may be referred
ASKARELS
• Askarels are synthetic oil used as insulating

and cooling medium in indoor transformers.
• Where transformers are used in doors as in

the case of generating stations for auxiliary
supply and where fire will be a hazard, it is
necessary to use non-inflammable synthetic
liquids instead of transformer oil (mineral oil)
as insulating and cooling medium.
• The NEMA of USA has designated these
synthetic liquids as askarel.
• Askarels are 60/40 mixture of chlorinated

biphenyl and tri- chlora benzene.
• It is known by various trade names in different

country (e.g.) Pyranol (USA), Pyroclor (Great
Britain), Clophen (German), and Sevtol (USSR).
• Their general characteristics are that they are
heavier than water, have a higher dielectric
strength than mineral oil, non-inflammable
and non-explosive.
• They are not susceptible to deterioration by

oxidation, have a lower co-efficient of
expansion than mineral oil and will dissolve
some insulating material and paints.
• At operating temperature their viscosity is the

• The dielectric strength of askarel is reduced by
the presence of emulsified water.
• With the use of askarel, special insulating

materials will have to be used.
• As askarel has a high dielectric strength,

distance between line parts can be decreased;
their lower co-efficient of expansion makes it
possible to do away with conservator.
• Since askarel is heavier than water, samples for
dielectric tests should be taken from the top of
the main tank of transformer where as mineral oil
(transformer oil) samples are collected from the
bottom of the main tank so that it will reflect the
correct electric strength.
• The testing procedure for askarel is same as for

mineral oil.
• Reconditioning of askarel can be done with

centrifuges of suitable design.
• Askarel can cause irritation of skin and hence gloves or
skin protection creams are to be used while handling
askarel.
• The creams can be washed away with ordinary soap. The

fumes may cause eye irritation, coughing etc.
• They have pungent odour. Gas mask may be used where

necessary. When arcing occurs in tank, chlorine is
liberated and hence units over 25 kVA have pre-relief
vent and gas absorber installed on transformer casing.
• Since askarel is a human hazard now askarel is seldom

used.
• The trend is to use mineral oil for indoor transformer or

TAP-CHANGERS
• The modern power transformers used in large
generating stations are mostly provided with off load
tap changer as the voltage regulation is taken care of
by the AVR.
• Whereas power transformers in receiving station are

normally provided with on load tap changer.
• In power station, station service transformers are

generally provided with on load tap changers.
• The taps are usually provided in the high voltage

winding of the transformer for better control of the
voltage.
OFF-LOAD TAP-CHANGERS
 The tap positions are changed with the
transformer de-energised.
 The equipment consists of an operating handle,
pointer, a non-corrosive indicator plate and a
latch.
 Lifting the latch and turning the handle can
change taps.
 The latch will drop into place on the indicator
plate when the new position is reached.
 Steel tube and pin that fits into a slotted sleeve
on the drive shaft connects the external
mechanism with the internal tap changer.
 A stuffing box seal is provided to prevent oil
A pair of heavy copper bars supported from
the operating shaft form the moving contacts.
The stationary contacts are mounted on a
Bakelite panel with tap leads connected to
them.
Three most common tapping arrangements of

transformer winding are
a) Linear
b) Coarse fine
c) reversing
As shown in Fig (3.2). In the linear
arrangement, number of voltage positions
available is equal to number of tapping's.
In the other two methods number of voltage

positions available are almost double of the
number of tapping.
Therefore the last two tap changing methods

are useful where large number of voltage
positions are needed.
In the coarse fine arrangement each fine
selector tap gives two voltages, first with
change over selector in a position to exclude
coarse tap winding from circuit and then in
other position.
Similarly in the reversing arrangement each

fine tap gives two voltages, first with change
over selector in a position where fine winding
is added to the main winding and then in
other position where fine winding is
ON-LOAD TAP-CHANGER
• This type of tap changer is used where the
voltage variation is done while transformer is
in energised condition.
On load tap changers have the following main

parts:
• Tap selector
• Diverter switch
• Operating mechanism
• Motor drive
• The tap selector consists of a number of
contacts generally arranged in a circle. It does
not make or break any current but only selects
the proper tapping to be used.
• A diverter switch consists of a set of contacts,

which actually diverts the current from the tap
in use to the tap to be used. All arcing and oil
carbonisation takes place in diverter switch.
• The motor drive consists of an electrical motor
and speed reduction gearbox for operation of
the tap changer. It also consists of a number of
control and indicating devices.
• The operating mechanism controls the proper
movement and timing of various tap selector
and diverter contacts. It consists of gears,
Geneva wheels, quick motion mechanism,
levers, linkages etc.
• The operating system can be a separate part
or an integral part of tap selector or diverter
switch or both together.
SWITCHING CYCLE
 A complete switching cycle showing how the
continuity of supply is maintained is shown in
figure 3.3. During change over from one tap to
another the two adjacent taps are temporarily
shorted through the transition resistors R1 and
R2.
 The upper position is known as tap selector as it

only selects a tap for use and does not make or
break the current.
 The lower portion is known as diverter switch.

 It actually diverts the current from one tap to another
and all the arcing takes place in these contacts.
 To change it from tap position No.4 to tap 5 the

diverter main contact M1 and T2 are shorted through
resistors R1 and R2.
 The circulating load current, both flows during this

period through transition resistors.
 T1 is then opened and load current is transferred to tap

5 and it flows through transition resistor R2.
DIVERTER SWITCHING OPERATION
 To reduce the thermal rating of transition
resistors they are kept in circuit for the shortest
possible time.
 The operation of diverter contacts M1, T1, T2 and

M2 is carried out by a spring operated quick
motion mechanism.
 The diverter operating time is generally of the

order of 50 to 60 milli seconds.
 Fig. (3.3) shows the resistor transition on- load

TRANSFORMER COOLING
Using the following mediums can do cooling of
the equipment
• Solid medium cooling
• Liquid medium cooling
• Gas medium cooling
SOLID MEDIUM
Epoxy/Resin cast compound (electrical grade)
LIQUID MEDIUM
Transformer oil and synthetic liquid
GAS MEDIUM
Air, Nitrogen (gas).
The generally accepted symbols for these mediums are as given
below:
Sl.no. Medium Symbol
1. Solid (Epoxy, “S”

compound)
2. Liquid a. Mineral Oil “O”
b. Syn. Liquid “L”
c. Water “W”
3. Gas a. Air “A”
b. Nitrogen “G”
Out of all the cooling mediums, liquid cooling is the
best and the rate of cooling can be varied effectively in
the liquid cooling medium.
There are two types of circulation of the above

mediums.
1. Natural circulation
2. Forced circulation.
The symbols used for natural and forced circulation
are “N” & “F” respectively.
The nomenclature for indicating the type of

cooling is expressed as follows:
Illustration
“OFAF”
12 3 4
There are 4 capital letters (symbols) used
in the above nomenclature.
• First letter: Indicates the cooling medium, which is
having direct contact with (Direct coolant)
transformer (core & winding)
• Second letter: It indicates the type of circulation of

the above (First letter)
• Third letter: It indicates the cooling medium (Indirect

coolant) which cools the direct coolant (First letter).
• Fourth letter: It indicates the type of circulation of

indirect coolant.
• First two letters indicate the internal cooling
(Direct coolant) and its circulation.
• Second two letters indicate the external cooling

(Indirect coolant) and its circulation.
• The service life of a transformer depends upon

the mechanical strength of insulation, to
withstand mechanical stresses due to surge and
short circuit conditions.
• The rate of deterioration of mechanical
strength of materials used in constructing the
windings, doubles for every 8 to 10oC increase
of winding temperature.
• Deterioration also depends upon time and

hence excessive temperature for short
duration are not very dangerous but still
sustained excessive temperature should be
avoided so that the transformer is reliable, for
20 years or more.
• The hot spot temperature of transformer
winding cannot be easily measured and hence
the limiting temperatures are stipulated in
terms of temperatures rise (above a specified
ambient temperature).
• This measurement is carried out by employing

RTD (resistance temperature detector).
• Cooling plays a very important role in

transformers for extracting the heat from the
windings.
The various types of cooling methods used for power
transformer
are given below (IS 2026: 1962)
Cooling Oil Cooling method Winding temperature
classification circulation rise limits (resistance
method)
“ON” Natural Air-natural 550C
“ONAF” Natural Air-blast/Forced 550C
“OFAN” Forced Air-natural 600C
“OFAF” Forced Air-natural 600C
“OFW” Forced Water(Forced) 650C
Top oil temperature measured by thermometer for all types of cooling is 400c
(Ambient temperature)
• The above symbols indicate the different types of
cooling in transformer employing mineral oil.
• The temperature rise of transformer windings, oil

and core should not exceed the limits prescribed
in the above table.
• For water cooled transformers, the temperature

rise specified is that measured above the inlet
water temperature.
• For other types of cooling, the temperature rise

given is that measured above the temperature of
cooling air (ambient air temperature not
o
TERMINAL MARKING PLATES AND RATING
PLATES
• Terminal Marking plate and rating plates are
provided on the transformer.
• This plate provides the complete information

about the equipment.
• When tapping switches or links are provided

the plate shall show the relative position,
number and link connections corresponding
to the different voltages, the switch position
corresponding to the maximum number of
turns in the tapped winding and it’s starting
The terminal marking plate shall include
the manufacturers drawing number,
connection diagram which will give
information regarding vector diagram and
group number, insulation level of each
winding, the insulation level of neutral point
when graded insulation is used and
interconnections.
TYPICAL TERMINAL MARKING PLATE FOR
DELTA/STAR CONNECTED 3 PHASE
TRANSFORMERS
Rating Plate
All transformers shall be fitted with rating
plates giving the following information:
A. The number of the standard. Ref. IS : 2026 :
1962
B. Manufacturers name and country of
manufacture
C. Manufacturer’s serial number
D. Rated KVA
G. Rated voltage at no load in HV and in LV, in
the case of single phase transformers
manufactured for operation in star
connected groups on a poly-phase system is
expressed in terms of the system voltage, for
example 132 kV/3.
H. Rated current (HV/LV)
I. Percentage impedance voltage at 75oC.
J. Winding connection and phase displacement
symbols of vector diagrams i.e. vector group
K. Type of cooling
L. Weight of core and windings assembly in Kgs.
M. Total quantity and weight of insulating liquid
in litre’s and Kgs.
N. Total weight of transformer in Kgs.
O. Temperature rise of oil for which the
transformer is designed.
P. Year of manufacture
Q. Customer’s reference (if given)
DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION OF SOME OF
THE ABOVE RATINGS
Impedance Voltage
For two winding transformer:
• The voltage required to be applied at rated
frequency between the line terminals of a
polyphase winding or between the terminals of
the single phase winding to cause the rated
current to flow through these terminals while the
terminals of the other winding are short-
circuited.
This measured value of voltage after
correction for an average temperature of 75oC of
the windings when expressed, as a percentage of
• In case of multi-winding transformer, this applies
only to any pair of windings; the remaining
winding being left open circuited.
Vector Diagrams
In vector diagrams, the vector represents induced
voltages and the phase displacement between HV
winding and LV winding. (Ref. Fig.4.1 to 4.4)
Vector Groups
There are four major vector groups and each
group includes three methods of connection of
high voltage and low voltage windings, which give
the same phase displacement between the
windings.
These groups are shown in table.
Group Phase displacement Clock hour
no. no.
1 00 0
2 1800 6
3 -300 1
4 +300 11
VECTOR SYMBOLS
The group connections (with reference to the relevant
vector diagram) and the phase displacement are
identified by the use of three alphanumeric symbols.
In case of two winding transformers, the symbols
have following significance.
• First symbol – higher voltage winding connection

(Capital letter)
• Second symbol – Lower voltage-winding connection

(Small letter)
• Third symbol – Phase displacement expressed as the

clock hour number
WINDING CONNECTIONS
The connection of the higher voltage and lower voltage

windings are indicated by the use of letters as given in
table.
Winding Type of connection Designation

connection
High Voltage Delta D
Star Y
Interconnected star Z
Low Voltage Delta d
Star y
Interconnected star Z
PHASE DISPLACEMENT
Phase displacement is the angular difference
between the vectors representing the voltages
induced between the corresponding high
voltage and low voltage terminals having the
marking letter for the vector group and its
respective neutral points (real or imaginary).
A convention adopted internationally to

indicate phase displacement is to use a figure
that represents the hour indicated by a clock.
The minutes hand takes the place of line to
neutral voltage vector for the high voltage
winding and is set at 12 O’clock.
The hour hand represents line to neutral

voltage vector for the low voltage winding.
Note: It follows that the clock hour number

(except for zero displacement) is obtained by
dividing the phase displacement angle in
degrees by 30. For example in (fig.4.3) per
phase displacement is minus 30o and the clock
hour number is therefore 1.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMER
For operating transformers in parallel, the
transformers should have the following
principal characteristics.
• The same phase angle difference between

the primary and secondary terminals.
• Same voltage ratio
• Same percentage impedance
• Same polarity
• Same phase sequence
As per the first condition, transformer of same
vector group number can only be paralleled.
It is also possible to operate a 3 phase

transformer of vector group number 3 in
parallel with another 3 phase transformer of
vector group number 4.
This can be done without any change in the

internal connection between phase windings
of the transformers but just by transposing the
external connections of one of the
Method: For paralleling transformers in vector group
3 and 4, any one of the transformer irrespective of
the windings whether delta or star connected,
interchange any two of the external HV connections
in the supply side and also the corresponding LV
external connections (Fig.4.6).
From fig.4.6 it may be noted that, the vector diagram

of the transformer with vector symbols Dyl is
identical with that in fig.4.3.
But for the transformer with vector symbols Yd 11

the vector diagram differs from that in fig.4.4
because for that transformer the phase sequence has
Transformer connected in accordance with
vector group No.1 and No.2 cannot be
operated in parallel with one another without
altering the internal connection of any one of
them.
Apart from four general vector groups

described above there are other special vector
group used in power transformers for special
application.
(e.g. Excitation transformer having vector
MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE
For maintaining continuity of supply and to prevent
damage to the transformer, which involves a
considerable investment, it is necessary to inspect
the transformers periodically and maintain them in
serviceable condition.
Complete maintenance may be impossible to justify

if it costs more than the failure of the transformer.
Modern transformer of large sizes have a number of

auxiliary devices such as cooling fans, oil pumps, etc.
whose proper functioning is necessary for the
efficient operation of transformers.
Hence periodic inspection of a transformer on the following
lines is generally adopted.
1. Checking of thermometers (their accuracy), their

contacts (for alarm and trip circuit).
2. Checking of bearings of fans (cooler fan or blower) and
oil pumps etc.
3. Checking of ground connections and earth resistance.
4. Checking of oil level in bushing, checking for chipped or
broken porcelain, excessive deposits, and traces of flash
over, gaskets for leaks.
The porcelain is to be cleaned with water or carbon

tetrachloride; the chipped spots are to be painted with
lacquer such as red glyptal.
Gaskets are to be replaced if necessary and bolts to be

5) Checking of oil samples for dielectric strength and
presence of moisture. Replenish or replace oil if
required.
6) Checking of bushing CT and PT devices, their
insulation resistance, ratio etc. Tightening the
connections.
7) Checking of tank cover, radiator joints, flanges,
valves for leakage and tightening, renewal of
gaskets etc.
8) Checking of relief diaphragm replace if cracked or
broken.
9) Checking of transformer for unusual noises.
10) Checking of surge diverter (lightening arrestor) for
11) Checking of tap changer mechanism, motor gears,
lubrication, contacts, spring operating mechanism,
etc.
12) Checking of insulation resistance between each

winding to ground. For finding out polarisation
index, note the readings at the end of 1 minute and
at 10 minute.
The ratio R10/ R1 is called polarisation index or

absorption factor. It is an indication of the
deterioration or ageing of the insulation.
(In Russian practice, the polarisation index is
determined by observing at 15 Sec and at 60
sec.
The ratio R60/R15 should be about 1.3).
If, IR10/IR1
= 1.0 to 1.1 -
suspicious
= 1.1 to 1.3 - good
= 1.3 to 1.5 - very good
The usual practice is to use the following test
voltages for determining the insulating
resistance:
• 10/5KV megger for EHV transformers

• 2.5kV Megger for windings of 10.5kV and
above
• 1000V Megger for windings of 3.3kV and
above
• 500V Megger for windings of LT Voltages
• 250V for thermocouples embedded in
• The general thumb rule for insulation resistance with a
2.5 kV megger is 2 Meg-ohm/kV at 60oc temperature.
• Corresponding values at different temperatures can be

obtained from the chart provided by the manufacturer.
• The IR Values at site should not be less than 75% of the

original test value.
• Normally the absorption factor values are measured at

ambient condition.
• The insulation resistance will increase with the decrease

in temperature.
The insulation resistance to be ascertained
between: -
• H.V. winding to earth

• L.V. winding to earth
• Between H.V. and L.V. winding.
13.Checking for leakage of water, water-piping etc.,

in case of water-cooled transformers.
14. Checking if inert gas tanks, regulators, gauges,
piping and valves in case where an inert gas is used
in the conservator tank. Checking of bus
ducts/cable boxes, the bus ducts have to be
checked for water collection and insulation
resistance.
Change the gaskets if necessary, tighten bolts etc.
In the case of cable boxes examine for filling
holes, cracking of compound etc.
15. Checking of gas in the buchholz relay – routine

examination of the buchholz or gas relay for gas
collection.
The gas can be released through the vent
Colour of gas Nature of fault
White grey Ageing of Paper or

pressboard
Yellow Ageing Wooden parts
Black Burnt Oil

16. Checking of oil level in the conservator and topping
up if necessary. If the oil level goes down, the gas
relay may act.
17. Checking up of breather and renewal of silica gel

when necessary.
• When indicating silica gel absorbs moisture it turns in

to pink colour.
• The saturated silica gel can be reactivated by heating
on a sand bath at a temperature of 100oC - 120oC till
it changes to sky blue colour.
• Ensure that while drying the silica gel, it is not burnt
by over heating.
PREPARATION OF SILICAGEL
NON INDICATING TYPE: -
The silica gel of 3 to 7mm sizes is
impregnated with calcium chloride solution.
The preparation of non-indicating type silica gel: -
 Take calcium chloride 4 parts by weight and 8 parts
of water (1:2). Mix these two into a solution.
 Take 10 parts of dry silica gel (at 60oC ) by weight and
add this to the solution and stirred. (The thickness of
layer of silica gel is not to exceed 150mm for
thorough impregnation).
 Heat the prepared material to a temperature of
400oC for 3 hours.
INDICATING TYPE: -
The silica gel of 3 to 7 mm sizes is
impregnated with cobalt chloride solution.
Preparation of indicating silica gel: -
 Take cobalt chloride 0.3 parts by weight 0.3 parts of
water (1:1) and mix these two in to a solution.
 Take ten parts by weight dry silica gel and then
added.
 The mixture along with silica gel is allowed to stand
still till the entire solution is absorbed.
 Heat the prepared material to a temperature of
100oC - 120oC for 15 to 20 hours until it acquires
uniform sky blue colour.
• Checking of dielectric strength and acidity of oil.
Mineral oils are composed of hydrocarbons.
• The most common cause of deterioration of
insulating oil is contamination by moisture.
• This cause can be corrected by purification of oil
(drying of oil).
• The less rapid but more serious deterioration viz.
formation of acids and sludge is caused by oxidation.
• The oxygen in air and water in the oil causes
oxidation. Further, an increase of temperature of
10oC generally doubles the rate of oxidation.
• So transformers should not be overloaded
during summer.
Water can be present in oil in

(a) dissolved form
(b) as emulsion and
(c) in a free state at the bottom.
• The dissolved water has little effect on the

dielectric strength.
• The amount of moisture dissolved in oil
increases with temperature.
• A small amount of moisture as an emulsion has a
marked influence in reducing dielectric strength of
oil.
• The emulsified water and water in free state is
readily removed by filtering or centrifuging.
• The sludge caused by the oxidation of oil and
interaction between acids and in turn forms
insulation blankets on the core and coil thus
preventing effective heat transfer.
• The sludge may also block the flow of oil through the
cooling ducts.
• As a result the transformer insulation gets damaged
which may eventually lead to break down.
• Tests have indicated that acidity is proportional to
the amount of oxygen absorbed by oil.
• It has been estimated that different types of
transformers would take following periods of time
before sludging takes place on the basis of loading:
Transformers with free air access 10 Years
Transformers with conservator 15 Years
Transformers bolted up tight 50 Years
Transformers with Nitrogen over oil 67 Years

• The above periods may not correspond to
actual field experience, on account of
different load conditions from those assumed.
• It has also been found that certain chemicals

retard oil oxidation until such time as they are
consumed.
• So the addition of an inhibitor to the oil

prolongs the life of oil.
• Ditertiary butyl- pancrool (DBPC) is found to

be effective when added to oil in small
concentration on account of its stability and
• When the acidity value has reached 1.0
(Neutralisation number) i.e. 1.0 mg of KOH/gm of oil,
for neutralising the acid in the oil, it will be essential
to replace the oil or reclaim the oil.
• The reclaiming processes involve the use of fuller’s

earth, or fuller’s earth in combination with trisodium
phosphate.
• Oil can be percolated through coarse clay (fuller’s

earth) either by gravity or under pressure or by
passing through hot finely divided fuller’s earth.
• With trisodium-phosphate-activated fuller’s earth

method, the oil and trisodium-phosphate solution
o
• Trisodium phosphate solution is drained and
the oil is washed with water spray for
removing any traces of unwanted material and
then decanted through a centrifuge and
heater to a tank where (200 mesh) activated
fuller’s earth is added and the mixture
agitated for about 15 minutes.
• The mixture is allowed to standstill by

overnight and then the oil is washed with hot
water, decanted through centrifuge.
• Passing through a dehydrator the oil is
dehydrated. An inhibitor can then be added.
• As moisture in oil reduces the dielectric

strength of the oil, it is necessary to test the
oil at regular intervals.
• Standard BDV tests kit is used for determining

the dielectric strength.
The prescribed limits of dielectric strength
are as follows:
Rating Fresh oil Oil in service
Up to 10kv 35kv 20kv
11kv to 33kv 35kv 25kv
33kv to 220kv 40kv 35kv
220kv to 50kv 45kv
500kv
The inspection and maintenance of oil will involve
dielectric strength test, acidity test, reconditioning and
reclaiming of oil.
BUCHHOLZ RELAY (REF. FIG.5.1)
• A gas and oil actuated protective device commonly
known as a Buchholz protective relay is used in all
power transformers of the rating 500KVA and above.
• Buchholz relays are provided with “alarm” and trip

contacts, and are located in the pipe work between
the tank and conservator.
• When an incipient fault occurs or due to any other

reasons if sufficient amount of gases are liberated
from the oil and gets trapped in the buchholz relay
the top float falls down and the alarm contact is
made so as to activate the alarm.
• The device relies on the fact, that if an
electrical fault inside is high enough to create
a surge of oil from the tank to the conservator
the oil in the Buchholz relay chamber is then
displaced.
• If the velocity of this surge of oil is greater

than approximately 90 cm/sec, it will cause
the bottom float to fall and operate the relay,
which in turn causes the circuit breaker to
open.
• It provides protection against all types of

The device is particularly useful for detecting
fault conditions even of very low magnitudes
such as inter turn fault, incipient winding fault,
and core fault due to core bolt insulation
failure giving rise to a short circuit and
subsequent arcing and gas.
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
Dissolved gas analysis is a powerful diagnostic

technique, for on line monitoring of the
internal condition of large transformers, due
to its capability to detect defects in the
incipient stage, before they develop into faults
and cause serious damage to the transformer.
• The conventional “Buchholz relay” or “Gas
operated relay” are universally used for the
above purpose.
• However, these have the limitation that enough

gas must be generated first to saturate the oil
fully and then to come out of solution.
• Often, by the time the Buchholz relay detects the

gas, the damage has already been done.
• Also, the Buchholz relay was never meant to be a

diagnostic device.
• The DGA technique is very sensitive technique
that uses vacuum extraction system and gas
chromatograph to detect gas in parts per million
of the oil, while it is still dissolved in the oil.
• It is possible to check whether a transformer is

being subjected to a normal working and heating,
or whether there are incipient defects such as hot
spots, sparking, partial discharges or over
heating.
• Such incipient faults could otherwise remain

undetected until they lead to actual failures.
PRINCIPLE OF DISSOLVED GAS ANALYSIS
There are four basic types of faults, which can

occur in a transformer.
These are
• Arcing or high current breakdown
• Low energy sparking or partial discharges
• Localised overheating or hot sports and
• General over heating due to inadequate
cooling or sustained over loading.
• Each of these faults results in thermal
degradation of the oil or oil in combination with
paper insulation.
• This gives rise to the evolution of the various

hydrocarbon gases, hydrogen and oxides of
carbon, in different quantities depending on the
type and severity of the fault.
• Heavy current arcing is characterised by the

evolution of significant quantities of hydrogen
and acetylene (C2H2).
• If the arcing involves paper insulation the oxides

• Partial discharge usually results in the evolution of
hydrogen and the lower order hydrocarbons
[Hydrocarbon gases like propane (C3H8) propylene
(C3H6) and Butane (C4H10)].
• Localised over heating or hot spots give rise to

methane (CH4) and Ethane (C2H6) in appreciable
amounts.
• Prolonged over loading or impaired heat transfer can

cause CO and CO2 to be generated due to over heated
paper insulation.
• The gases evolved during incipient faults will normally

go into solution with the oil and continue to be so until
the saturation level of each gas in the oil is attained.
• This usually takes considerable time
depending on the severity of the fault and
solubility of each gas.
• The technique of dissolved gas analysis

involves the detection and identification of
faults in the incipient stage by extraction of
the dissolved gases from the oil, by separation
of each gas from the extracted mixture of
gases, and quantitative analysis by gas
Faults and Their Gases
Sl.No. Type of fault Main gases produced
1. Hot spot in oil H2,CH4,C2H4,C2H6,C3H6,C3H8
2. Over heating of solid CO,CO2,H2,CH4,C2H4,C2H6,C3H6,C3

insulation H3
3. Arcing in oil H2,CH4,C2H2,C2H4,C3H6
4. Arcing in solid insulation CO,CO2,H2,CH4,C2H2,C2H4,C3H6

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE
(Based on ISI recommendation )
Sl.No. Frequency of Items of inspection Inspection notes
inspection
1. Hourly Oil and winding temp. Check the temp.rise is
normal
2. Hourly Load and voltage Check against rated
figures
3. Daily Oil level in the Check the oil for correct
bushing Level
4. Daily Oil level in -do-
transformer
5. Daily Relief diaphragm Check for cracks
6. Daily Breather Check colour of silicagel
7. Daily Oil and water piping Check for leakage
8. Daily Oil pumps, cooling Check for leakage
fans, values, plugs
Items 3 to 8 could be done weekly instead of daily
9. Monthly Fan motors Check IR values
Items 3 to 8 are repeated
10. Quarterly Bushings Check for cracks
11. Quarterly Oil in transformer Check the dielectric strength
12. Quarterly Gas relay Release the gas, testing of gas
13. Quarterly Windings Check the winding resistance
14. Quarterly Terminals Check the terminal for the

security of the tightness
15. Quarterly Fan bearings Check for freeness

16. Half yearly Item 3 to 15
17. Yearly or earlier Oil in transformer Check for acidity, Test oil
if Tr. Is available
on shut down
18. - do- Bushings

19. -do- Gasket joints
20. -do- Cable boxes
21. -do- Surge divertor and gaps Check for cracks etc.
22. -do- Earth resistance

23. -do- Relays, alarm and their Check contacts, operation
circuits accuracy etc.
24. -do- Tap changer
In addition items 3 to 16
25. Unschedule Transformer Overall inspection

d or 7-10 capacity above including lifting
yearly 3000KVA core and coils
For transformer 1000-3000KVA once in 5 years

Transformer Troubles and Their Remedies
Sl. Symptom Trouble Cause Remedies

no.
1. Temp. rise a) Overload a) Over load or low a) Reduce load or

above the b) In- power factor increase p.f. of
specified -sufficient b) Due to a leakage the system
values in oil oil of oil or in b) Add more oil and
cooled tr. a) Oil sufficient oil weld tank,
jellied when installed. Note: the core and
c) Excessive heat. coils should be fully
(In this case the immersed in oil.
windings will be c) If insulation is not
roasted and the damaged, flush the
insulation has to tank with new oil
be revived). until all the old oil is
removed and refill
with new oil.
2. Temp.rises a) Overload a) Same as in 1(a) a) Same as in 1(a)
above the b) In- b) Blower speed is too b) Increase the speed of
specified values -sufficient air low or air ducts the blower, clean air
in Air-cooled tr. circulation clogged ducts.
Note: In cleaning air
ducts care must be
exercised.
If compressed air is used
full voltage should be
applied on the windings
immediately, as there will
be moisture in
compressed air. Voltage
should be applied on HT
winding with LT short-
circuited.
A transformer thus
treated may be put back
into service after 5 hours
of drying.
3. Temp. rises a)Over load a) Same as in 1(a) a) Same as in 1(a)
above specified b)Insufficient b) Pressure low or tubes b) Increase water flow rate.
values in water water flowing in obstructed Choked tubes are to be
cooled the heat c) Oil leakage around cleaned with caustic
transformer exchanger water inlet. soda in water solution.
c) Oil saponified d) Cooling coils plugged c) Stop the leakage, and
on outside of the and Tr.operated at too fill the transformer tank
Cooling coils low temperature. with oil.
d) Remove cooling water
or apply air under a
pressure of 250 lbs./sq.”
with care other wise the
pressurised water lines
may burst.
The cooling tubes should be
cleaned with solution of
HCL & water in equal parts
atleast once in 6 months.
This solution is to be
allowed to stand in the coils
for not more than one hour,
after which the coils are to
be flushed and cleaned with
water.
5. Voltage too Wrong ratio Leads not Connect the leads to
low connected to the the correct tap.
proper ratio taps
6. Voltage too Wrong ratio a) Same as in 5. a) Same as in 5.
high b) Tr. Paralleled b) Change the
has different ratio. winding to make
the all
transformers
have the same
ratio or replace
transformers or
install the auto
Transformer.
MAINTENANCE AND TESTING OF TRANSFORMER
Procedure Document No.1
Aim: To measure the values of winding
temperature, oil temperature, HV&LV voltages
and sound.
Procedure
• Identify the winding temperature indicator (WTI).
Note down the reading with time.
• Identify the oil temperature indicator
(thermometer). Note down the reading with
time.
• Note down the HV&LV voltages in all phases with
time.
Aim: To check oil level in transformer, oil level in
bushing, to check for any crack in diaphragm, to
observe the colour of the active agent in
breather.
Procedure
• Observe for the prescribed oil level in the
conservator
• Observe the level of the oil from the magnetic
level gauge provided for measuring the level of
the oil in the conservator.
• Observe the level of oil in the bushing.
• If the level is low, report
• Using a 5-cell torchlight, observe for any crack in
diaphragm of the explosion vent.
• Observe the colour of the active agent in the
Aim: To inspect the bushings.
• If any protective coatings are applied, using
gloves the coatings may be wiped off and
cracks if any may be observed.
Note: Please do not use any knife or
iron scrapper to remove the coatings lest the
glazing on the insulator will be destroyed.
• If there are no protective coatings, use wet
cloth to wipe and then dry cloth to observe for
any crack.
• Report.
Aim: To conduct IR Test on a transformer
Test equipment required:

Hand operated megger for lower ranges OR
Transistorised megger/Motorised Megger (for
higher ranges) with
• selectors for different voltage ranges
• selectors for different IR ranges
• provision for discharge electrodes
Pre-requisite: (The person testing should have
known the factors affecting IR & PI value of a
transformer)
Procedure
• Taking safety precautions, discharge all the
windings at least for ½ hour.
• Clean the bushings
• Note down the temperature of oil and
windings
• Read the instructions for the test equipment.
• Select the appropriate test voltage depending
upon the rated voltage of the winding to be
tested (selection of voltage vide Table 1).
• LT to ground (a2-earth, b2-earth,c2-earth)
• HT to ground ( A8 – earth, B8 – earth, C8 –
earth)
• HT to LT (a2-A8, b2-B8, C2-C8)
• and note down the respective values of IR as
per sl.no. 8 below.
• Except the winding to be tested, other
windings should be connected to earth.
(While testing LT, HT should be grounded and
vice-versa)
• Apply the voltage for 10 min and take the
readings at 15, 30, 45 and 60 seconds and
then every minute thereafter for a total of 10
minutes. Record the readings.
• Discharge the winding after the each test.
• Conduct the test in the similar manner for
other windings in turn.
TABLE 1
Machine Voltage D.C. Test

Voltage
Up to 2000 V 500 V
2001 to 4000 V 1000 V
4001 to 8000 V 2500 V
8001 and above 5000 V

Aim: To conduct winding resistance test
Test Equipment required

• Wheatstone Bridge or Micro Ohmmeter or
any precision low resistance measurement
equipment for the measurement of
resistance.
Pre-requisite: The person testing should know

the relevancy of this test.
Procedure
• Read the instruction manual of the test
equipment.
• Knowing the different configurations of
transformer windings, the measurement may be
taken and the readings are recorded.
• Temperature of the windings to be noted.
• Winding Resistance can be calculated at any
temperature. For example, say at 75oC is
computed by using the formulae.
234.5 + 75
R 75O C = R test X -----------------------------
----------
234.5 + winding
temperature o C
Aim: To conduct Ratio Test on a transformer.
Method-1 (direct reading test)

Test equipment required:
• TTR (Transformer Turns Ratio) Test set
• Wires
Pre-requisites: The person conducting the test

should know the relevancy of this test.
Procedure
• The ratio of the standard transformer in the
test set is adjusted until its voltage is exactly
equal to that of the transformer under test.
• The ratio of the standard transformer then
indicates the ratio of the transformer under
test.
• The test has to be carried out in all tap
positions both in the ascending order and also
in descending order.
Method-2 (indirect reading test)
Test equipment required

• A known voltage source.
• Precision volt meters (class 0.5)
• Wires
Procedure
• Keep the tap position in No.1
• Apply voltage to H.T. terminals of the transformer
(about 400 volts)
• Measure the voltage applied to the HT terminals
of the transformer
• Measure the voltage between phases on the LT
side of the transformer.
• Repeat step (3) and (4) in each tap position of
transformers both in the ascending order and in
the descending order.
• All the readings may be recorded in a format.
• Note down the voltage in the name plate and
compare the actual results:
The ratio as given in name plate for example: 50KVA Actual value
Transformer
Tap nos. HT in LT in voltage Transformati HT in LT in volts Transformati
volts i.e. LT, on ratio volts on ratio
VL=VPH/ 3 HT/LT HT/LT
VL – line voltage
VPH – phase
voltage
1 10450 43. 51
416 4OO AS Calculated
2 10725 = 44. 65 MEASURE Value
240.18 D BY
3 11000 45. 79
VOLTMET
ER
4 11275 46. 94
5 11550 48. 09
Aim: To conduct Polarity Test on a transformer
Method-1
• During the test as per procedure document
No.3, Method-1, the polarity will be
simultaneously known.
Method-2
• This test is applicable to all types of
transformers.
• Notations are given as example for
transformer connections of Dy11. The primary
is Delta connected. The secondary is star
• During the ratio test, the neutral will be
known. Mark the same.
• From the name plate of the transformer mark
the other LT terminals of the transformer and
then relative HT terminals.
Note: The supply from the LT side of
the transformer shall be as per the name plate
detail since cable, relays, motor connections
would have been installed as per the polarity
marked in the name plate.
• Apply voltage to any two H.T. terminals of the
transformer such that there is maximum
voltage between a2 and “n” on the secondary
side of the transformer and the supply may be
switched off immediately.
• Then these two terminals may be either A8 or
B8 but definitely the terminal which has not
been connected must be C8.
• To verify which terminal is A8& which one is
B8, remove one of the two connections, which
was connected earlier and now connected to
the third terminal. Assume it as to be C8.
• Now apply the voltage between the assumed
HT terminal A8 and C8 and observe for the
maximum voltage on the secondary side
between c2 and n.
• If the assumption is correct, then there will be
maximum voltage between c2 and n.
• Observe for the max voltage between c2 and n
on the secondary side for confirmation that
HT terminal is C8.
Method-3
Test equipment required
• Battery (6V)
• Centre zero galvanometer or Avometer
Procedure
• The neutral of the transformer would have
been known from the Ratio Test.
• From the name plate detail, in relation to the
neutral, mark the other terminals of LT.
• The standard chart is given below as an
example.
Primary winding(HT) Secondary winding(LT)
A2b2 b2c2 c2a2
(+) (+) (+)
A8B8(+) + 0 -
B8C8(+) - + 0
C8A8(+) 0 - +
EXPLANATORY NOTES
• Connect any HT terminal A8 to the +ve terminal of
the battery and connect another HT terminal B8
to the –ve terminal of the battery through a
switch.
• On the secondary side connect the +ve terminal
of the galvanometer or AVO to a2 and –ve
terminal to b2.
• Observe the deflections in the galvanometer or
AVO when the switch is closed.
• One will find that there is positive deflection.
Now switch may be opened. Then connect the
+ve terminal to b2 and –ve terminal to c2 and
• It will be zero or the deflection will be very
little when compared to the previous one.
• Open the switch. Repeat the operation for c2

(+ve) and a2 (-ve). One will find that the
deflection is negative.
• Repeat the above operation for HT terminals

(B8 C8 & C8 A8) and the deflection in the
galvanometer or AVO will be as per row 2 & 3
respectively of the above table.
Moisture Detector Test
Test Equipment required

• Motorised Megger
• Test leads
PROCEDURE
• Select 500 volts range.

• Connect the megger to LT and apply for 1
minute.
• Take down the megger reading
• Select 2500 volts
• Connect the megger to HT and apply for 1
minute
• Take down the megger reading
• Report
Aim:To conduct core loss test on a transformer
Test equipment’s required

• 3 phase wattmeter
• Voltmeters
• Ammeters
• Test leads etc.
Procedure
Connect the wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter as shown be
During the test transformer secondary is kept open conditio
Note: Wattmeter connection may be done
as per test equipment manufacturer’s
instruction.
• Apply 10% of the rated line voltage.

• Measure watts (W1 + W2).
• Repeat the above test for different percentage
of the rated voltage.
• Record & Report the two-wattmeter readings.
Aim: Drying out the transformer
Method-1: Drying with core and coils in oil
by the short circuit method.
1. Short the secondary (LT) terminals through
ammeter by means of cable, capable of
carrying rated current (available from the
name plate detail).
2. Keep the vent cock on the transformer cover,
explosion vent, vent cock on the conservator
open.
3. Keep the tap position switch at the maximum
so as to engage all the windings into drying.
4. Keep the oil level below the radiator hole
(This is to avoid hot oil to pass through
radiator pipes and get cooled due to oil
circulation).
5. If the above is not possible keep the level of
oil at 1 cm or 2 cm below the transformer
cover and completely cover the radiator
pipes with canvass (This is to conserve the
heat).
6. Apply voltage to the primary (HT) and
gradually increase it till 25% of rated
secondary current (LT) is obtained.
7. After say half an hour increase HT voltage
such that 50% of the rated current in the LT
winding is circulating. Thereafter, the HT
voltage may be raised such that full rated
current is circulating.
8. Monitor the oil temperature using dial type
thermometers or spirit type thermometer. It
shall not be allowed to go beyond 85oC.
9. If the temperature rises above 850c, reduce
the circulating current.
10.Maintain a log sheet.
11.Conduct and record the BDV of oil with time
in the log sheet.
12.Record the winding resistance with time in
the log sheet.
13. Keep the transformer for 24 hours with
heating by short circuit but without filtering.
14.All ventilating openings may be closed.
15.After 24 hours again conduct BDV test.
16.A decrease in dielectric strength indicates
further drying is required.
17.A constant dielectric strength or increase in
dielectric strength indicates stopping of
drying process.
18.To speed up the drying process, oil-filtering
equipment can be used in addition to
circulating current in the secondary.
19.In this method, continue drying till the oil

withstands the standard breakdown voltage
value for seven consecutive tests taken 4
hours apart.
Method-2: Drying core and coil without oil
Same as Method-1, but for the following
changes:
o Measuring winding resistance to monitor the
temperature of winding.
o Measuring insulation resistance of the
winding to monitor the drying process.
o Drying process may be discontinued when
constant or increasing IR value is obtained.
Method-3: Drying with external heat.
The Core and coil may be left in the
transformer tank without oil.
All vents may be opened.
Hot dry air may be passed.
The temperature of winding may be
monitored as mentioned in Method-2.
The drying process may be monitored as
mentioned in Method-3.
Method-4: Drying with D.C. supply (either with
oil or without oil)
(The winding connection shall be in star for this
application)
 Apply D.C. voltage with +ve on a2 and –ve on b2
such that rated current is flowing.
 After a period of time say 2 hours apply D.C.
voltage with +ve on b2 and –ve on C2 such that
rated current is flowing.
 After 2 hours apply D.C. voltage with +ve on C2
and –ve on a2 such that rated current is flowing.
 Repeat this operation continuously till
satisfactory IR value or Dielectric strength is
obtained as outlined in Method 1 or
2
Note: - The test voltages are applied to
the LT winding so that large amount of current
Procedure document No.11
Aim: To obtain a representative sample of oil from
transformer, switchgear etc.
Procedure
 Open bottom-sampling valve of the transformer.
 Let some quantity of oil to flow into the waste oil
drum.
 Close bottom-sampling valve.
 Keep the sampling vessel beneath the sampling
valve, and now open the bottom-sampling valve till
the sampling vessel is filled. (During filling ensure
that no unnecessary aeration is taking place).
 After the sampling vessel is filled, the sampling valve
is closed.
Dielectric Strength Test
1. Obtain the representative sample of oil to be

tested as per procedure in document No.11.
2. The test cell may be thoroughly cleaned and
dried.
3. Slowly pour the oil over the electrodes. Rinse
the test cell thoroughly and pour the oil into
drain.
4. With the help of a clean and dry gauge plate
set the gap between the spherical brass
5. Place the test cell in the correct position in
the oil test kit.
6. Pour the oil over the electrodes slowly
without allowing mush air bubbles to form.
7. Fill up the test cell with oil such that the level
of the oil is above 40mm above the
electrodes.
8. With clean and dry glass rod the gas bubbles
in the oil should be cleared. This is to ensure
that the no void is present in the oil.
9. The cover (with glass window for viewing)
shall be closed (normally test equipment
fabricated as per ISS will have an interlock
that, only when the cover is closed, we will
be able to energise the equipment.)
10.The oil should be allowed to settle for 10
minutes.
11.Check whether the equipment has been
properly connected to earth.
12.Energise the test equipment.
13.Raise the voltage slowly till the breakdown
14.When the voltage is being raised see through
the glass window for any arcing.
i. (In many design of the test equipment,
whenever arcing accompanied by a break down
occurs, the voltmeter needle drops to zero.
ii. To know the voltage at which the breakdown
occurs, there is a provision of a Memory Switch.
iii. By pressing the memory switch one will be able
to know the voltage at which the break down
has occurred).
iv. Ignore the minor arcing and continue to rise the
voltage till the breakdown occurs.
15. Repeat the test for six times and note down the
16.The oil is allowed to settle for atleast 5
minutes. During this time the oil should be
gently stirred with a clean dry glass stick to
remove air bubbles and soot particles etc.
17.The mean value of the six BDV values is to be

taken as the BDV for the given oil.
18.Note the temperature and record the reading

with date and time.
Acidity Test (Field Test)
• The procedure adopted to conduct the test
consists of pipetting 1.1 ml of oil to be tested
or by means of an unmarked dropper in to a
clean dry test tube.
• Then 1.0 ml of rectified spirit (ethyl alcohol) is
added to the test tube.
• The contents are gently shaken to facilitate
soluble acids in the oil to be extracted by
alcohol.
• Then 1.0 ml of 0.0085 N sodium carbonate
• After shaking the test tube again, five drops of
the universal indicator (potassium hydroxide
[KOH]) is added.
• The resulting mixture develops a colour

depending on pH value of the mixture.
• The colour developed is compared with a

standard chart, which gives the approximate
number ranging from 0 to 1.0 with an interval
of about 0.1
• Oils having an acid number of 0 to 0.5 show
transition colours from Prussian blue to
yellow, whereas those having as acid number
of 0.5 and above show a change from yellow
to vermilion.
The following acidity limit has been

adopted for preparation of the Standard
chart: -
1. When the acidity is less than 0.2 mg/KOH/g
the oil is in good condition.
2. When the acidity is between 0.2 to 0.5
mg/KOH/g no immediate is action needed.
Whenever the transformer falls due for
maintenance the oil may be treated.
3. When the acidity is between 0.5 to 1.0
mg/KOH/g the oil should be kept under
observation and oil should be treated as an
when any shutdown in the plant is available.
4. When the acidity exceeds 1 mg/KOH/g the oil
should be treated or discarded.

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TRANSFORMER

It can raise or lower the voltages with a

It is accomplished by Faraday’s law of

The coils are wound on a laminated core of

It operates the mutual inductance between the two

Ns > Np, K > 1 is known as step up

CLASSIFIED AS BASED ON THEIR FUNCTION AND

MAIN GENERATOR TRANSFORMER (GT)

• The power transformer is used for stepping up

• The Voltage level (15.75/220KV or 15.75 /

The unit auxiliary transformer to

Generator terminal voltage to unit

• Tertiary winding is an additional winding

• It is an auxiliary Delta connected winding.

• As per core construction. Both the types

• In indoor type transformer, transformer oil

• Indoor type transformer may have to be

• The maximum permissible total temperature

• Normally ambient temperature will be

• In the core and windings are transferred to the

• The oil is in turn cooled by the ambient air

• In order to keep the eddy and hysteresis losses

• core is made up of thin laminations of cold

• low loss and higher saturation flux density.

• The thickness of lamination varies from

• The laminations are cut according to the size

• This change in dimension is not directly

• Magnetostriction is the inherent property of

• The CRGO Steels are made in various grades

• Therefore the interleaved core construction

• To use stepped core construction or mitred

1. Helical type winding

SPIRAL TYPE WINDING

• It is preferable for high voltage and low

• This type of winding is normally used for HV

• The number of discs in each coil of the

• The requirement of insulation between LV

• In view of this the low voltage winding is

1. Thermally upgraded Kraft paper cylinders

• This is the insulation provided between

• The different materials used for minor

• The transformer more economical, so that

• The shaped tanks have the tank walls shaped

• Structurally the curved portions in the tank

• The shaped tank construction is decided by

• The vertical ribs to form corrugation on the

• These corrugations play the role of stiffeners

• The corrugation acts as horizontal stiffeners at

• This is to provide necessary structural strength

• Another advantage of corrugated tank wall is

• It may not be possible to transport,

• Tap changers are mounted either inside the tank

• The tap changer is normally mounted inside the

• The outer surface is treated with anti-corrosive

• The radiator consists of a bank of flat tubes,

• This consists of a vertical pipe work closed by

• This diaphragm bursts or slides out in the

• In the event of failure of the explosion vent, the

• This plate diverts the gases towards buchholz

1. Synthetic resin bonded paper

• In the OIP type, the condenser core is built-up

• The condenser core with or without porcelain

• The bushing are hermetically sealed. The

• A chamber is provided at the top of the