Chapter 1

Introduction

Introduction 1-1
Definition
 What is a Computer Network
 Interconnected Collection of autonomous Computers

 Computer Networks are Ubiquitous

 Cellular telephones
 Cyber cafes
 Home networks
 Networked PCs in the office
 Networked cars
 Networked environmental sensors
 Interplanetary Internet

Introduction 1-2
Chapter 1: Introduction
Our goal: Overview:
 Introduce basic  what’s the Internet
terminology and  what’s a protocol?
concepts  network edge
 Pieces of Computer
 network core
Network
 access net, physical media
 more depth, detail
 Internet/ISP structure
later in course
 performance: loss, delay
 approach:
 network modeling (Quantitative
 use Internet as
example Models)-transmission, propagation and
queuing delays

 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-3
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-4
What’s the Internet
 Public Internet – a specific computer network
 Definition of Internet
 Internet is a network of networks
 Two views
• “Nuts and bolts” view of the Internet
– Basic hardware and software components that make up the Internet
• “Service View” of the Internet
– Describe the Internet in terms of a Networking Infrastructure that provides services to
distributed applications

Introduction 1-5
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
 millions of connected
computing devices (hosts router
workstation
= end systems ): server
mobile
 Traditional
 nontraditional local ISP

 running network apps

 communication links
regional ISP
 Physical – coaxial, twisted-
pair, fiber, copper
 Wireless - radio, satellite
 transmission rate (bps) =
bandwidth
 Packet switches: forward company
network
packets (chunks of data)
Introduction 1-6
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view (2)
 Packet – the chunk of router
workstation
information
server
 Types of packet switches mobile
 routers: forward packets local ISP
(chunks of data)
 Link layer switches
 Route or Path regional ISP
 Packet switching
 End systems share a path
or parts of a path, at the
same time
company
network

Introduction 1-7
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view (3)
 The first packet switched
router
networks, created in 1970s, workstation
are the earliest ancestors of server
today’s Internet. mobile
 ISP local ISP
 Each ISP is a network of
packet switches and
communication links. regional ISP
 Residential ISPs – local
telephone company,
corporate ISPs, university
ISPs, other ISPs

company
network

Introduction 1-8
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view (4)
 Services provided by ISP router
workstation
 Dialup
server
 Broadband(cable/DSL) mobile
 High speed LAN access local ISP
 Wireless Access
 Internet access to content
providers (Connecting web
sites directly to the regional ISP
Internet)
 Tier of ISP
 Lower tier ISPs
 National and international
upper tier ISPs company
network

Introduction 1-9
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view (5)

 protocols control sending, router workstation

receiving of msgs server
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP, PPP mobile
 Internet: “network of local ISP
networks”
 loosely hierarchical
 public Internet versus regional ISP
private intranet (firewall)
 Internet standards
 IETF: Internet Engineering Task
Force
• RFC: Request for comments
 IEEE 802 LAN/MAN standards company
network

Introduction 1-10
What’s the Internet: a service view
 communication
infrastructure enables
distributed applications:
 Web, email, games, e-
commerce, file sharing
 communication services
provided to apps:
 connection-oriented
reliable
• Reliable
 Connectionless unreliable
• No guarantees

Introduction 1-11
What’s the Internet: a service view (2)
 Currently, the Internet does
not provide a service that
makes promises about:
 How long it will take to deliver
the data from sender to
receiver
 Increase the access
transmission rate
 Advances in the nuts and bolts
components of the Internet
are being driven by the needs
of new applications
 Internet is an infrastructure
in which new applications are
being constantly invented and
deployed

Introduction 1-12
What’s a protocol?
human protocols:
 What do we do when
we want to ask Hi
someone for the time
of day? Hi
 “what’s the time?” Got the
 “I have a question” time?
2:00
 introductions

… specific msgs sent

… specific actions taken time
when msgs received, or time
other events
Introduction
 If people run different protocols 1-13
 What’s a protocol? (2)
network protocols:
TCP connection
 machines rather than
req
humans
TCP connection
 all communication response
activity in Internet Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
governed by protocols
 H/W implemented <file>
protocols in the NIC
 Congestion control
protocols in end
systems
Protocols in routers

time time

Introduction 1-14
 What’s a protocol? (3)
Web client
Example of network Web server
protocols: TCP connection
req
 What happens when
you make a request to TCP connection
response
a web server. Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross

<file>

time time

Introduction 1-15
What’s a protocol? (4)
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
req
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Introduction 1-16
What’s a protocol? (5)

A protocol defines the format and the order of

msgs exchanged between two or more
communicating entities, as well as the actions
taken on the transmission and/or receipt of a
message or other event.

Introduction 1-17
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-18
A closer look at network structure:

 network edge:
applications and
hosts
 network core:
 routers
 network of
networks
 access networks,
physical media:
communication links
Introduction 1-19
 The network edge:
 end systems (hosts):
 Computers connected to the
Internet
 The Internet’s end systems
include
• Desktop computers
• Servers
• Mobile computers
• Other devices
– Thin clients
– Household appliances etc.
 Hosts - run application
programs
• e.g. Web, email
 at “edge of network”
 Hosts – client and server Introduction 1-20
 The network edge (2):

 client/server model (In

the conetext of
networking software)
 client host requests, receives
service from always-on server
 e.g. Web browser/server;
email client/server
 Client server application are
distributed applications
 Routers, links and other nuts
and bolts of the Internet
serve as a black box.

Introduction 1-21
The network edge (3):

 peer-peer model:
 Not pure client programs
interacting with not pure
server program
 minimal (or no) use of
dedicated servers
 Popular P2P file sharing
application – e.g. KaZaA

Introduction 1-22
Network edge: Services

 End systems use the Internet to communicate with

each other.
 What are the characteristics of the communication
services that the Internet provides to its end
systems.
 TCP/IP networks and in particular the Internet,
provide two types of services to end-systems
applications:
 Connection-oriented service
 Connectionless service

Introduction 1-23
Network edge: connection-oriented service
Connection establishment, Data transfer, Connection release
Goal: data transfer TCP service [RFC 793]
between end systems  reliable, in-order byte-
 handshaking: setup stream data transfer
(prepare for) data  loss: acknowledgements
transfer ahead of time and retransmissions
 Hello, hello back human  flow control:
protocol  sender won’t overwhelm
 set up “state” in two receiver
communicating hosts
 congestion control:
 TCP - Transmission  senders “slow down sending
Control Protocol rate” when network
 Internet’s connection- congested
oriented service
Introduction 1-24
Network edge: connectionless service
Goal: data transfer
between end systems App’s using TCP:
 same as before!  HTTP (Web), FTP (file
 No handshaking – transfer), Telnet
 Data can be delivered (remote login), SMTP
sooner/faster,
 Transaction-oriented (email)
applications

 UDP - User Datagram

Protocol [RFC 768]:
 connectionless
 unreliable data transfer
 no flow control
 no congestion control
App’s using UDP:
 streaming media,
teleconferencing, DNS,
Internet telephony
Introduction 1-25
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-26
The Network Core
 Definition - mesh of
interconnected routers
 Two fundamental
approaches to building a
network core
 the fundamental question:
how is data transferred
through net?
• circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
• packet-switching: data
sent thru net in
discrete “chunks”
Introduction 1-27
The Network Core (2)
 Analogy
 Consider two restaurants
• One, that requires reservations
• Another, that neither requires reservations nor accepts them

 Example of Circuit Switched networks – Telephone

Networks
 Example of Packet Switched Networks – Internet
 Not all telecommunication networks can be neatly
classified as pure circuit-switched networks or pure
packet-switched networks

Introduction 1-28
Network Core: Circuit Switching

End-end resources
reserved for “call”
 link bandwidth, switch
capacity
 dedicated resources:
no sharing
 circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
 call setup required

Introduction 1-29
Network Core: Circuit Switching
network resources  dividing link bandwidth
(e.g., bandwidth) into “pieces”
divided into “pieces”  frequency division
 pieces allocated to calls  Ex – telephone
 resource piece idle if networks, FM
not used by owning call radio stations
(no sharing)  time division

Introduction 1-30
Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-31
Numerical example
 How long does it take to send a file of
640,000 bits from host A to host B over a
circuit-switched network?
 All links are 1.536 Mbps
 Each link uses TDM with 24 slots
 500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit

Work it out!

Introduction 1-32
Network Core: Packet Switching
each end-end data stream
(messages) divided into packets
travel through packet switches in
store-and-forward fashion
 user A, B packets share network
resources
 each packet uses full link
bandwidth
 resources used as needed
Bandwidth division into “pieces”
Dedicated allocation
Resource reservation
resource contention:
 aggregate resource
demand can exceed
amount available
 congestion: packets
queue, wait for link use
 store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
 Node receives complete
packet before forwarding
Introduction 1-33
 Network Core: Packet Switching (2)
Store-and-forward delay
 Store-and-forward packet switches introduce a store—
and-forward delay
 This delay is proportional to the packet’s length in bits.
 In particular
o If a packet consists of L bits and
o The packet is to be forwarded onto an outbound link of R bps,
o Then store-and-forward delay at the switch is L/R seconds

Introduction 1-34
 Network Core: Packet Switching (3)
Queuing delays
 For each attached link, the packet switch has an output
buffer (output queue)
 The output queue stores the packets
 Packets may suffer output buffer queuing delays.
 These delays are variable and depend on the level of
congestion in the network
 Finite buffer space
 Packet loss

Introduction 1-35
Packet Switching: A Simple Packet-
Switched Network
10 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Congestion  if the arrival rate of packets to the

switch exceeds the rate at which the switch can
forward packets across the 1.5 Mbps output
link.
Introduction 1-36
 Packet Switching: L

A R R R
E

 How long it takes to send a packet of L bits from

one host to another across a packet switched
network
 Let us suppose that there are Q links between A and E,
each of rate R bps.
 Assume that queuing delays and end-to-end propagation
delays are negligible and that there is no connection
establishment.
 The packet must first be transmitted onto the first link
emanating from host A; this takes L/R seconds.
 It must then be transmitted on each of the Q – 1
remaining links, that is, it must be stored-and-forwarded
Q – 1 times.
 Thus the total delay is QL/R.
Introduction 1-37
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L
R R R

 Takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out)  L = 7.5 Mbits
packet of L bits on to  R = 1.5 Mbps
link or R bps
 delay = 15 sec
 Entire packet must
arrive at router before
it can be transmitted
on next link: store and
forward
 delay = 3L/R

Introduction 1-38
Packet switching versus circuit switching
 Packet switching is not suitable for real-time
services
 For example – telephone calls, video conference calls
 This is due to its variable and unpredictable end-to-end
delays
• Due primarily to variable and unpredictable queuing delays

 Proponents of packet switching argue that

 It offers better sharing of bandwidth than circuit
switching.
 It is simpler, more efficient and less costly to implement
than circuit switching.

Introduction 1-39
Packet switching versus circuit switching (2)
Why is packet switching more efficient?

 It allows more users to use network.

 Great for bursty data
 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup – allocates link use on demand

Introduction 1-40
Packet switching versus circuit switching (3)
Why is packet switching more efficient?
It allows more users to use network!
 1 Mb/s link
 each user:
 100 kb/s when
“active”
active 10% of time
N users

 Inactive 90% of
time, transmitting 1 Mbps link
no data

Introduction 1-41
Packet switching versus circuit switching (4)
Why is packet switching more efficient?
It allows more users to use network!
 circuit-switching:
 100 kbps must be
reserved for each
user at all times.
 Eg., with circuit-
switched TDM, if a
one-second frame is
N users
divided into 10 time 1 Mbps link
slots of 100 ms each,
then each user would
be allocated one time
slot per frame.
 The link can support
only 10 simultaneous
users
(1 mbps/100kbps) Introduction 1-42
Packet switching versus circuit switching (5)
Why is packet switching more efficient?
It allows more users to use network!
 packet switching:
 with 35 users, probability > 10 active less than .0004
• The probability that a specific user is active is 0.1 (i.e. 10 percent)
• The probability that at any given time , exactly n users are
transmitting simultaneously =
• The probability that at any given time , exactly 10 users are
transmitting simultaneously =
• The probability that there are 11 or more users transmitting
simultaneously = = 0.0004

• When there are 10 or fewer simultaneously active users, the

probability = 1 - 0.0004 = 0.9996 , the aggregate arrival rate of data
is less than or equal to 1 Mbps.

Introduction 1-43
Packet switching versus circuit switching (6)
Great for bursty data
 Example - Assume 1mbps link rate
 Suppose there are 10 users and that user one suddenly generates
one thousand 1000-bit packets, while other users remain idle and
do not generate packets.
 Circuit switching
• With TDM circuit switching with 10 slots per frame and each slot consisting of
1000 bits, the active user can only use its one time slot per frame to transmit
data, while the remaining nine slots in each frame remain idle.
• It will be 10 seconds before all of the active user’s one million bits of data has
been transmitted.
 Packet switching
• The active user can continuously send its packets at the full link rate of 1 mbps,
since there are no other users generating packets that need to be multiplexed
with the active user’s packets.
• All of the active user’s data will be transmitted within 1 second.

Introduction 1-44
Packet switching versus circuit switching (7)

 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup – allocates link use on
demand

Introduction 1-45
Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing

 Circuit switching
 Preallocates use of the transmission link
regardless of demand, with allocated but
unneeded link time going unused.
 Packet switching
 Allocates link use on demand
 Link transmission capacity will be shared on a
packet-by-packet basis only among those users
who have packets that need to be transmitted
over the link.

Introduction 1-46
Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing (2)

 Statistical multiplexing
 Such on-demand (rather than preallocated)
sharing of resources is referred to as the
statistical multiplexing of resources.

Introduction 1-47
Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing (3)
10 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed

pattern  statistical multiplexing.
In TDM each host gets same slot in revolving TDM
frame.
Introduction 1-48
Packet-switched networks: forwarding
 Goal: move packets through routers from source to
destination
 we’ll study several path selection (i.e. routing) algorithms
 datagram network:
 destination address in packet determines next hop, forwarding
table, Analogous to car driver who does not use maps
 Ex: Routers in the Internet, Analogous to Postal Service
 Do not maintain connection state information in their switches
 routes may change during session
 analogy: driving, asking directions
 virtual circuit network:
 each packet carries tag (virtual circuit ID), tag determines next
hop, Translation Table
 Ex : X.25, frame relay, ATM
 fixed path determined at call setup time, remains fixed thru call
 routers maintain connection-state information
Introduction 1-49
Network Taxonomy
Telecommunication
networks

Circuit-switched Packet-switched
networks networks

FDM Networks Datagram

TDM
with VCs Networks

Introduction 1-50
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-51
Access networks and physical media
Access Networks:
 The physical link(s) that
connect an end system to its
edge router, which is the
first router on a path from
the end system to any other
distant end system.
 The access network provides
the infrastructure to
connect the customer
premises into the network
infrastructure.
 Figure – thick red lines

Introduction 1-52
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
 residential access nets
 Company/institutional
access networks
(school, company)
 Wireless access -
mobile access networks
Keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
 shared or dedicated?
Introduction 1-53
Residential access:

 Dialup via modem

 Broadband access technologies
 DSL
 HFC

Introduction 1-54
Residential access: Dialup

 Dialup via modem

 The access network is simply
a pair of modems along with a
point-to-point dial-up phone
line.
 up to 56Kbps direct access to
router (often less)
 Can’t surf and phone at same
time: can’t be “always on”

Introduction 1-55
Residential access: DSL
 ADSL: asymmetric digital
subscriber line
 Surf and phone at the same
time – always on
 Higher bit rates
 up to 1 Mbps upstream (today typically < 256 kbps)
 up to 8 Mbps downstream (today typically < 1 Mbps)
 FDM: 50 kHz - 1 MHz for downstream
4 kHz - 50 kHz for upstream
0 kHz - 4 kHz for ordinary telephone

Introduction 1-56
Residential access: DSL (2)
 The actual transmission rate available to the user is
a function of
 The distance between the home modem and the
ISP modem
 The gauge of the twisted pair line
 The degree of electrical interference
 DSL has been designed for short distances between
residential and ISP modems, allowing for higher
transmission rates than dial up access.

Introduction 1-57
Residential access: HFC
 Extension of the current cable network
(Figure)
 Cable modems
 HFC: hybrid fiber coax
 asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream, 2 Mbps
upstream
 Shared broadcast medium
• Distributed multiple access protocol

 network of cable and fiber attaches homes to

ISP router
 homes share access to router
 deployment: available via cable TV companies
 Services – always on
Introduction 1-58
Residential access: cable modems

Introduction 1-59
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

Typically 500 to 5,000 homes

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-60
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-61
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

server(s)

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-62
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

FDM:
C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network

Introduction 1-63
Company access: local area networks
 company/univ local area
network (LAN) connects
end system to edge router
 Ethernet:
 shared or dedicated link
connects end system
and router
 10 Mbps, 100Mbps,
Gigabit Ethernet
 Twisted pair or coaxial cable
 Shared vs Switched
 LANs: chapter 5

Introduction 1-64
Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access
network connects end system
to router router
 via base station aka “access
point” base
 wireless LANs: station
 802.11b (WiFi): 11 Mbps

 wider-area wireless access

 provided by telco operator
 3G ~ 384 kbps
mobile
• Will it happen??
hosts
 WAP/GPRS in Europe

Introduction 1-65
Home networks
Typical home network components:
 ADSL or cable modem
 router/firewall/NAT
 Ethernet
 wireless access
point
wireless
to/from laptops
cable router/
cable
modem firewall
headend
wireless
access
Ethernet point

Introduction 1-66
Physical Media
Twisted Pair (TP)
 Bit: propagates between  two insulated copper
transmitter/rcvr pairs wires
 physical link: what lies  Category 3: traditional
between transmitter & phone wires, 10 Mbps
receiver Ethernet
Category 5:
 guided media:

100Mbps Ethernet
 signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction 1-67
Physical Media : Twisted Pair
Twisted Pair (TP)
 Least expensive, most commonly used, guided
 Used by telephone networks
 Construction –
 Two insulated copper wires
 twisted to reduce electrical interference
 Types – STP & UTP
 Data rates depends on
 Thickness and distance between transmitter and receiver

 UTP
 Category 3: traditional phone wires, 10 Mbps Ethernet
 Category 5:
100Mbps Ethernet
Introduction 1-68
Physical Media: coax
Coaxial cable:
 two concentric copper conductors
 High bit rates
 bidirectional
 baseband:
 single channel on cable
 legacy Ethernet

 broadband:
 multiple channel on cable
 HFC

Introduction 1-69
Physical Media: fiber
Fiber optic cable:
 glass fiber carrying light pulses, each pulse a bit
 high-speed operation:
 high-speed point-to-point transmission (e.g., 5 Gps)

 low error rate: repeaters spaced far apart ; immune to

electromagnetic noise
 Backbone of the Internet
 High cost of optical devices – transmitters, receivers
and switches

Introduction 1-70
Physical Media: Radio
 Electromagnetic spectrum
 Features
 No physical wires,
 can penetrate walls,
 provide connectivity to mobile users
 Carry signal for long distances
 Characteristics of a radio channel depend upon
 Propagation environment
 distance

Introduction 1-71
Physical Media: Radio (2)
 Environmental considerations determines
 Path loss
 Shadow fading
 Decrease the signal strength as the signal travels over a
distance and around/through obstructing objects
 Multipath fading
 Due to signal reflection off of interfering objects
 Interference
 Due to other radio channels or electromagnetic signals

Introduction 1-72
Physical Media: Radio (3)
 Types
 Terrestrial
 Satellite

Introduction 1-73
Physical media: terrestrial
 terrestrial microwave
 e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

 Local area - LAN (e.g., Wifi)

 2Mbps, 11Mbps

 wide-area (e.g., cellular)

 e.g. 3G: hundreds of kbps

 satellite
 up to 50Mbps channel (or multiple smaller channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low altitude

Introduction 1-74
Physical media: satellite
 Ground stations and satellite
 Two frequency bands
 Repeaters
 Rates (gbps)
 Two types of satellites
 geosynchronous versus low altitude
 Geosynchronous
 Stationary at 36000 kms
 270 msec end-end delay
 Backbone of telephone networks and Internet

Introduction 1-75
Physical media: satellite (2)
 Low-altitude satellites
 Closer to earth
 Not stationary

Introduction 1-76
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-77
 Internet structure: network of networks
 End Systems connected through Access Networks
 Internet is a network of networks
 Tiered hierarchy of ISPs
 at center: “tier-1” ISPs – Internet Backbone networks
 national/international coverage
 Link speeds – 655 mbps or higher, 2.5 to 10 gbps
 treat each other as equals Tier-1 providers
also interconnect
Tier-1 at public network
providers
Tier 1 ISP
NAP access points
interconnect (NAPs)
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

POP – Points
of Presence
Introduction 1-78
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint
Sprint US backbone network

Introduction 1-79
 Internet structure: network of networks

 “Tier-2” ISPs: smaller (often regional or national) ISPs

 Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs

Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISP pays Tier-2 ISP also peer
Tier-2 ISP privately with
tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to Tier 1 ISP each other,
rest of Internet NAP interconnect
 tier-2 ISP is
at NAP
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Introduction 1-80
 Internet structure: network of networks

 “Tier-3” ISPs and local ISPs

 last hop (“access”) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and tier- Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
3 ISPs are
customers of Tier 1 ISP
higher tier NAP
ISPs
connecting
them to rest
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
of Internet
local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-81
 Internet structure: network of networks

 a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP
NAP

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-82
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
1.8 History

Introduction 1-83
 Introduction
What can happen to a router workstation
packet as it travels server
mobile
from its source to its local ISP
destination?
 Types of delays
 Nodal processing delay regional ISP
 Queuing delay
 Transmission delay
 Propagation delay
Total Nodal Delay
company
network

Introduction 1-84
 How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

R1
A R2

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-85
Four sources of packet delay
 1. processing delay:
 Time required to examine
the packet’s header and to
determine where to direct
the packet
 Time needed to check bit
level errors
 Microsecond or less
 2. queueing delay
 time waiting at output link
for transmission
 variable
 depends on queue/congestion
level of router
 Microseconds to milliseconds

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Introduction 1-86
Delay in packet-switched networks
3. Transmission delay:
 Amount of time required to
push (that is, transmit) all of
the packet’s bits into the link.
 R=link bandwidth (bps)
 L=packet length (bits)
 time to send bits into link =
L/R
 Microseconds to milliseconds
4. Propagation delay:
 Time required to propagate from
the beginning of the link to the
router R2 is the propagation
delay
 d = length of physical link
 s = propagation speed in medium
(~2x108 m/sec)
 propagation delay = d/s
 milliseconds

Note: s and R are very

transmission different quantities!
A R1 propagation
R2
B
nodal
processing queueing
Introduction 1-87
 Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 10 cars  Time to “push” entire
 Cars “propagate” at caravan through toll
100 km/hr booth onto highway =
12*10 = 120 sec
 Toll booth takes 12 sec to
service a car  Time for last car to
(transmission time) propagate from 1st to
2nd toll booth:
 car~bit; caravan ~ packet
100km/(100km/hr)= 1 hr
 Q: How long until caravan
 A: 62 minutes
is lined up before 2nd toll
booth? Introduction 1-88
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
 Yes! After 7 min, 1st car
 Cars now “propagate” at at 2nd booth and 3 cars
1000 km/hr still at 1st booth.
 Toll booth now takes 1  1st bit of packet can
min to service a car arrive at 2nd router
 Q: Will cars arrive to before packet is fully
2nd booth before all transmitted at 1st router!
cars serviced at 1st
booth?

Introduction 1-89
Nodal delay
d nodal  d proc  d queue  d trans  d prop
Contribution of these delay components
 dproc = processing delay
 typically a few microsecs or less
 Max throughput
 dqueue = queuing delay
 depends on congestion

 dtrans = transmission delay

 = L/R, significant for low-speed links

 dprop = propagation delay

 a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs
 Two routers in same campus or through satellites
Introduction 1-90
Queueing delay (revisited)
 Variable
 Statistical measures
 Average queuing delay
 Variance of queuing delay
 The probability that the queuing delay exceeds some specified value
 When is queuing delay large and when it insignificant?
 Rate at which traffic arrives at the queue
 Transmission rate of the link
 Nature of the arriving traffic (whether Bursty)
 a=average packet arrival rate (packets/sec)
 R=transmission rate i.e. link bandwidth (bps)
 L=packet length (bits)
 The average rate at which bits arrive at the queue=La bits/sec
 Assume that the queue is very big

Introduction 1-91
Queueing delay (revisited) (2)
traffic intensity = La/R

 La/R > 1: delays become large

 La/R ≤ 1: nature of arriving
packets impacts the queuing
delay
o Packets arrive periodically
o Packets arrive in bursts but
periodically
o Arrival process to a queue is
random

 La/R ~ 0: average queueing delay small

 La/R ~ 1: average queuing delay gets larger

Introduction 1-92
Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer
has finite capacity
 when packet arrives to full queue, packet is
dropped (aka lost)
 The fraction of lost packets increases as
the traffic intensity increases
 lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or
not retransmitted at all

Introduction 1-93
End-to-End Delay

 Nodal delay
 Delay from source to destination
 Suppose
 N-1 routers between source and destination
 Network is uncongested
• Queuing delay negligible
 dproc = processing delay
 R bps=transmission rate
 dtrans =L/R
 dprop = propagation delay

 dend-end = N (dproc + dtrans + dprop )

Introduction 1-94
“Real” Internet delays and routes

 What do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?

 Traceroute program: provides delay measurement
from source to router along end-end Internet path
towards destination.
 Source host sends multiple, special packets towards
the destination, these packets pass through a series
of routers.
 When a router receives one of these special packets,
it sends a short message back to the source.
 This message contains the name and address of the
routers.

Introduction 1-95
“Real” Internet delays and routes (2)
 Example – Reconstruct routes and determine Round
Trip delays
 Suppose there are (N – 1) routers between the source and
destination
 Then the source will send N special packets into the
network (marked 1 through N)
 When the nth router receives the nth packet marked n, the
router does not forward the packet towards its
destination, but instead sends a message back to the
source
 When the destination host receives the Nth packet, it too
returns a message back to the source
 The source records the time that elapses between when it
sends a packets and when it receives the corresponding
return message; it also records name and address of the
router (or the destination host) that returns the message
Introduction 1-96
“Real” Internet delays and routes (3)

 For all i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-97
“Real” Internet delays and routes (4)
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
Three round trip delay measements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
link
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no reponse (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

Introduction 1-98
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-99
Protocol “Layers”
Networks are complex!
 many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers Is there any hope of
 links of various organizing structure of
media network?
 applications
 protocols Or at least our discussion
 hardware, of networks?
software

Introduction 1-100
Organization of air travel (Airline System)

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps/actions
 functionality
Introduction 1-101
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer below

Introduction 1-102
Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect
rest of system

Introduction 1-103
Drawback of layering?
 One layer may duplicate lower layer functionality
 For example, many protocol stacks provide error
recovery on both a link basis and an end-to-end basis.
 Functionality at one layer may need information
that is present only in another layer; this violates
the goal of separation of layers.

Introduction 1-104
 Internet protocol stack
When taken together, the protocols of
various layers are called the protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications application
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP, DNS
transport
 transport: host-host data transfer
 TCP, UDP
network
 network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination link
 IP, routing protocols
 link: data transfer between neighboring physical
network elements
 PPP, Ethernet
 physical: bits “on the wire”
Introduction 1-105
 source
message M application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
Hl Hn Ht M link Hl Hn Ht M
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network Hn Ht M
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hl Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-106
Introduction: Summary
Covered a “ton” of material! You now have:
 Internet overview  context, overview,
 what’s a protocol? “feel” of networking
 network edge, core, access  more depth, detail to
network follow!
 packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
 Internet/ISP structure
 performance: loss, delay
 layering and service
models
 history

Introduction 1-107
End

Introduction 1-108