Proportional counters

• In a proportional counter, many electrons (10 - 10,000) reach the anode for
each primary ion pair produced in the gas. The reason is that the electron of
each primary ion pair creates further "secondary" ion pairs as it gets close to
the anode. These secondary ion pairs are produced in what is called an
avalanche.
1. Liquid is placed into a chamber and allowed to reach an
equilibrium state of evaporation and condensation.
(saturation)

2. Chamber is adiabatically cooled or expanded, resulting

in supersaturation of the air inside. (disruptions will
cause quick & easy condensation)
3. Ionizing radiation passing
through the vapor ionize
nearby atoms and
molecules.

4. Condensation occurs
around ionized
molecules, revealing the
path of the ionizing
particles.
 IONIZING RADIATION

Comes in 3 tasty flavors: alpha (a), beta (b),

and gamma (g).

Must be at least 12.4 eV to be considered

“ionizing”.

Alphas (helium nuclei) are the most

massive, slowest moving, and least
dangerous of the three.

Gammas (photons) are the least massive,

fastest moving, and most dangerous.

Betas (electrons) are in between. CAUTION:

Ionizing Radiation is
Harmful to Animals!
 CLOUDS FORM ON IONS
• Water is a polar molecule, so
it’s attracted to the ions.

• Many molecules begin to

stick together, thus
condensing into tiny droplets.

• Alcohols like Ethanol and

Methanol are also polar, and
behave similarly.
Ethanol Stream

• Alcohols are less dense, and

more readily form vapors,
making them more suited to
use in cloud chambers.
WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER

1
WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER

ADIABATIC
EXPANSION
2
WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER

ADIABATIC
EXPANSION
3
 ALPHA broad, straight track

 BETA thin, bending track

 GAMMA no tracks as too few ions are

produced in the air
 PET is a diagnostic imaging technique for
measuring the metabolic activity of cells in the
human body.
 It was developed in the mid 1970s and it was
the first scanning method to give functional
information about the brain.

Htt://www.nucmed.buffalo.edu/petdef.htm
 A Positron is an anti-matter electron, it is identical in mass but has an apposite
charge of +1.

 Positron can come from different number of sources, but for PET they are
produced by nuclear decay.

 Nuclear decay is basically when unstable nuclei are produced in a cyclotron by

bombarding the target material with protons, and as a result a neutron is released.

18-O + proton => 18-F + neutron

 In PET the target material is chosen so that the product of the bombardment
decays to a more stable state isotope by emitting a positron, for instance 18-F has
too many protons, so one of these protons decays into a neutron emitting in the
process a positron an a neutrino.

 proton (+1 charge) => neutron (0 charge) + positron (+1 charge) + neutrino (0
charge)

 After decay, we’re left with 18-O

 Left over energy from the nuclear decay process is shared between the
positron and the departing neutrino. Kinetic energy.

 Because of conservation of energy and momentum the positron is forced

to stay and thus become useful.

 Positron begins its activity in colliding with other particles and gradually
losing its kinetic energy and thus slowing down.

http://www.nucmed.buffalo.edu/positron.htm
 The positron will encounter an
electron and completely
annihilate each other resulting
in converting all their masses
into energy. This is the result
of two photons, or gamma rays.

 Because of conservation of
energy and momentum, each
photon has energy of 511keV
and head in an almost 180
degrees from each other.
 511keV is the ideal rest state
annihilation value.
 Patients with conditions affecting the brain
 Heart
 Certain types of Cancer
 Alzheimer’s disease
 Some neurological disorders

Htt://www.nucmed.buffalo.edu/petdef.htm