• Simple stresses are expressed as the ratio of the applied

force divided by the resisting area. Mathematically,

σ=P/A
• It is the expression of force per unit area to structural
members that are subjected to external forces and/or
induced forces. Stress is the lead to accurately describe
and predict the elastic deformation of a body.
• It is measured in psi (English unit) or in MPa (SI unit).
Another unit of stress which is not commonly used is the
dynes (cgs unit). Simply, it is the ratio of force over area.
• Simple stress can be classified as normal stress, shear
stress and bearing stress.
• Normal Stress develops when a force is applied
perpendicular to the cross-sectional area of the material.
or the resisting area is perpendicular to the applied force
σ=P/A
• There are two types of normal stresses
 Tensile stress applied to bar tends the bar to elongate
 Compressive stress tend to shorten the bar
A homogeneous 800 kg bar AB is supported at either end
by a cable as shown in Fig. Calculate the smallest area of
each cable if the stress is not to exceed 90 MPa in bronze
and 120 MPa in steel.
• By symmetry
PBronze = PSteel = ½ x (800 x 9.81)
= 3924 N
• For Bronze Cable

PBronze = σBronze x ABronze, σBronze = 90 MPa

=> ABronze = 43.6 mm2
• For Steel Cable

PSteel = σSteel x ASteel , σSteel = 90 MPa

=> ASteel = 32.7 mm2
The homogeneous bar shown in Fig is supported by a
smooth pin at C and a cable that runs from A to B around
the smooth peg at D. Find the stress in the cable if its
diameter is 0.6 inch and the bar weighs 6000 lb.
ΣMc = 0
5 x T + 10 x 3/√𝟑𝟒x T= 5 x
6000
T = 2957.13 lb

T=σxA
2957.13 = σ x Π / 4 (0.6)2
σ = 10458.7 psi
Determine the largest weight W that can be supported by
two wires shown in Fig. The stress in either wire is not to
exceed 30 ksi. The cross-sectional areas of wires AB and
AC are 0.4 in2 and 0.5 in2, respectively.
For wire AB
By sin law (from the force polygon):
TAB / sin 40o = W / sin 80o
TAB = 0.6527 W
σAB x AAB = 0.6527 W
30 x 0.4 = 0.6527 W
W = 18.4 kips
For wire AC
By sin law (from the force polygon):
TAC / sin 60o = W / sin 80o
TAC = 0.8794 W
σAC x AAC = 0.8794 W
30 x 0.5 = 0.8794 W
W = 17.1 kips

Safe load W = 17.1 kips

• Shear Stress is developed if the applied force is parallel to the
resisting area.
𝜏=V/A
where V is the resultant shearing force which passes which
passes through the centroid of the area A being sheared.
• It differs to tensile and compressive stresses, which are
caused by forces perpendicular to the area on which they act.
• Shearing stress is also known as
tangential stress.
• Example is the bolt that holds the
tension rod in its anchor. Another
condition of shearing is when we twist
a bar along its longitudinal axis. This
type of shearing is called torsion.
What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that is
25 mm thick?
The shear strength is 350 MN/m2
𝜏 =V/A
V=P=𝜏 xA
= 350 x (Π x 20 x 25)
= 549778.7 N
= 549.8 kN
• Bearing Stress is the contact pressure between the two bodies.
• It differs from compressive stress, as compressive stress is an internal
stress caused by compressive forces,
Whereas, bearing stress is the
compressive force divided by the
characteristic area perpendicular to it.
σb = Pb / Ab

• Suspension bridges are good example of structures that carry these

stresses. The weight of the vehicle is carried by the bridge deck and
passes the force to the stringers (vertical cables), which in turn,
supported by the main suspension cables. The suspension cables then
transferred the force into bridge towers .
Assume that a 20 mm diameter rivet joins the plates that are each
110 mm wide. The allowable stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in
the plate material and 60 MPa for shearing of rivet. Determine
(a) the minimum thickness of each plate; and
(b) the largest average tensile stress in the plates
From shearing of rivet:
P = 𝜏 x Arivet
= 60 x (Π/4 x 202)
= 6000 Π N
From bearing of plate material:
P = σb x Ab
6000 Π = 120 x (20 x t)
t = 7.85 mm
Largest average tensile stress in the plate:
P=σxA
6000 Π = σ x (7.85 x (110 – 20))
σ = 26.67 MPa
Figure shows a roof truss and the detail of the riveted
connection at joint B. Using allowable stresses of τ = 70
MPa and σb= 140 MPa, how many 19 mm diameter rivets
are required to fasten member BC to the gusset plate?
Member BE? What is the largest average tensile or
compressive stress in BC and BE?
At Joint C
ΣFy = 0
BC = 96 kN (tension)

Consider the Sec through BD, BE and CE

ΣMA = 0
8 x 3/5 BE = 4 x 96
BE = 80 kN (compression)
For member BC
Based on shearing of rivets:
BC = 𝜏 x A, where A = Area of one rivet x no of rivets, n
96000 = 70 x ((Π/4 x 192) x n) 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2
 n = 4.8 say 5
Based on bearing of member:
BC = σb x Ab, where Ab = Diameter of rivet x thickness of BC x no of
rivets, n
96000 = 140 x (19 x 6 x n)
 n = 6.02 say 7
Use 7 rivets for member BC
For member BE
Based on shearing of rivets:
BE = 𝜏 x A, where A = Area of one rivet x no of rivets, n
80000 = 70 x ((Π/4 x 192) x n)
 n = 4.03 say 5
Based on bearing of member:
BC = σb x Ab, where Ab = Diameter of rivet x thickness of BC x no of
rivets, n
80000 = 140 x (19 x 13 x n)
 n = 2.3 say 3
Use 5 rivets for member BE
Relevant data from the table (Appendix B of
“Strength of Materials, Fourth Edition by Andrew
Pytel and Ferdinand L Singer, Table B – 5, Properties of Equal Angle
Sections: SI Units, page 567)

Designation Area
L75x75x6 864 mm2
L75x75x13 1780 mm2
Tensile Stress of member BC (L75x75x6)
σ = P/A = 96000/(864 – (19 x6))
σ = 128 MPa

Compressive Stress of member BE (L75x75x13)

σ = P/A = 80000/1780
σ = 44.94 MPa
• The state of stress at a point is defined by
the stress components acting on the sides
of a differential volume element that
encloses the point
• Consider the differential element in Fig
where the faces of the element coincide
with the coordinate planes
• A face takes its name from the coordinate
axis that is normal to it
• Positive stresses act in positive coordinate
directions on positive faces of the element
• Thus, σx denotes the normal stress acting
on an x-face; 𝜏xy is the shear stress on the
x-face acting in the y-direction; and so on
• The general state of stress at a point is
characterized by six independent normal and
shear stress components, as shown in Fig a, which
act on the faces of an element of material located
at the point.
• This state of stress, however, is not often
encountered in engineering practice. Instead,
engineers frequently make simplifications in order
that the stress produced in a structural member
can be analyzed in a single plane with coplanar
loadings. When this is the case, the material is
then said to be subjected to plane stress.
• The general state of plane stress at a point, shown
in Fig b, is therefore represented by a combination
of two normal-stress components, σx, σy, and one
shear-stress component, 𝜏xy, which act on only
four faces of the element.
• For convenience, we will view this state of stress in the
x-y plane, as shown in Fig a.
• However, the stresses acting at a point in a body
depend on the orientation of the reference plane.
• If this state of stress is produced on an element having a
different orientation θ, as in Fig b, then it will be
subjected to three different stress components, σx’, σy’,
𝜏x’y’, measured relative to the x’, y’ axes.
• In general, the two sets of stresses would not be equal,
although they are computed at the same point, because
the resultant forces acting on the two planes are not
equal.
• Hence, the state of plane stress at the point is uniquely
represented by two normal-stress components and one
shear-stress component acting on an element. To be
equivalent, these three components will be different
for each specific orientation θ of the element at the
point.
PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS. If the state of stress at a point
is known for a given orientation of an element, Fig a, then
the state of stress on an element having some other
orientation θ, Figb, can be determined as follows:
• The normal and shear stress components σx’, σy’, 𝜏x’y’
acting on the +x’ face of the element, Fig b, can be
determined from an arbitrary section of the element in
Fig a as shown in Fig c. If the sectioned area is ΔA, then
the adjacent areas of the segment will be ΔA sin θ and
ΔA cos θ.
• Draw the free-body diagram of the segment, which
requires showing the forces that act on the segment, Fig
d. This is done by multiplying the stress components on
each face by the area upon which they act.
• When ΣFx’ = 0 is applied to the free-body diagram, the
area ΔA will cancel out of each term and a direct solution
for σx’ will be possible. Likewise, ΣFy' = 0 will yield 𝜏x’y’ .
• If σy’, acting on the +y’ face of the element in Fig b, is to
be determined, then it is necessary to consider an
arbitrary segment of the element as shown in Fig e.
Applying ΣFy' = 0 to its free-body diagram will give σy’.
The state of plane stress at a point on the surface of the
airplane fuselage is represented on the element oriented as
shown in Fig a. Represent the state of stress at the point on an
element that is oriented 30° clockwise from this position.
The rotated element is shown in Fig d. To obtain
the stress components on this element we will
first section the element in Fig a by the line a–a.
The bottom segment is removed, and assuming
the sectioned (inclined) plane has an area ΔA, the
horizontal and vertical planes have the areas
shown in Fig b. The free-body diagram of this
segment is shown in Fig c. Notice that the
sectioned x’ face is defined by the outward
normal x’ axis, and the y’ axis is along the face.
Equilibrium. If we apply the equations of force
equilibrium in the x’ and y’ directions, not the x
and y directions, we will be able to obtain
direct solutions for σx’and 𝜏x’y’ .
+ ΣFx’ = 0;
σx’ ΔA - (50 ΔA cos 30o) cos 30o
+ (25 ΔA cos 30o) sin 30o+ (80 Δ A sin 30o) sin 30o
+ (25 Δ A sin 30o) cos 30o = 0
σx’ = -4.15 MPa Ans
+ ΣFy’ = 0;
𝜏x’y’ ΔA - (50 ΔA cos 30o) sin 30o
- (25 ΔA cos 30o) cos 30o
- (80 ΔA sin 30o) cos 30o
+ (25 ΔA sin 30o) sin 30o = 0
𝜏x’y’ = 68.8 MPa Ans
Since σx’ is negative, it acts in the opposite
direction of that shown in Fig c. The results are
shown on the top of the element in Fig d, since
this surface is the one considered in Fig c.
Repeat the procedure to obtain the stress on the
perpendicular plane b–b. Sectioning the element in
Fig a along b–b results in a segment having sides with
areas shown in Fig e. Orienting +x’ axis outward,
perpendicular to the sectioned face, associated free-
body diagram is shown in Fig f. Thus,
+ ΣFx’ = 0; σx’ ΔA - (25 ΔA cos 30o) sin 30o
+ (80 ΔA cos 30o) cos 30o - (25 ΔA sin 30o) cos 30o
- (50 ΔA sin 30o) sin 30o = 0
σx’ = -25.8 MPa Ans
+ ΣFy’ = 0;
𝜏x’y’ ΔA + (25 ΔA cos 30o) cos 30o
+ (80 ΔA cos 30o) sin 30o - (25 ΔA sin 30o) sin 30o
+ (50 ΔA sin 30o) cos 30o = 0
𝜏x’y’ = -68.8 MPa Ans
Since both σx’ and 𝜏x’y’ are negative quantities,
they act opposite to their direction shown in Fig f.
The stress components are shown acting on the
right side of the element in Fig d.
From this analysis we may therefore conclude
that the state of stress at the point can be
represented by a stress component acting on an
element removed from the fuselage and oriented
as shown in Fig a, or by choosing one removed
and oriented as shown in Fig d. In other words,
these states of stress are equivalent.