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* No sedimentation tanks
EPA Disinfection CT Credits
CCl tcontact 0.2828 pH 2.69 CCl0.15 0.933
T -5
pC *
tcontact 0.2828 pH 2.69 CCl0.85 0.933
T -5
pC *
CCl = Free Cl2 Residual [mg/L]
tcontact CCl0.85 tcontact = Time required [min]
pC*
0.2828 pH 2.69 0.933
T -5
pH = pH of water
T = Temperature, degrees C
Chicks Law! pC* = -[Log(fraction
remaining)]
Note: These equations are NOT dimensionally correct!
Disinfectant Limitations
Disinfection by products
Tastes and Odors
Real pathogens
Getting the right dose
Disinfection Byproducts
Sources of
MCLG1 MCL Potential Health Effects
Contaminant Contaminant in
(mg/L)2 (mg/L)2 from Ingestion of Water
Drinking Water
Bromate zero 0.010 Increased risk of cancer Byproduct of drinking water
disinfection (plants that use
ozone)
Chlorite 0.8 1.0 Anemia; infants & young Byproduct of drinking water
children: nervous system disinfection (plants that use
effects chlorine dioxide)
Haloacetic acids n/a6 0.060 Increased risk of cancer Byproduct of drinking water
disinfection
(HAA5)
Total none7 0.10 Liver, kidney or central nervous Byproduct of drinking water
system problems; increased disinfection
Trihalomethanes ---------- ---------- risk of cancer
(TTHMs) n/a6 0.080
Disinfectants
Chloramines MRDLG MRDL Eye/nose irritation; stomach Water additive used to control
discomfort, anemia microbes
(as Cl2) =41 =4.01
Chlorine (as MRDLG MRDL Eye/nose irritation; stomach Water additive used to control
discomfort microbes
Cl2) =41 =4.01
Chlorine MRDLG MRDL Anemia; infants & young Water additive used to control
children: nervous system effects microbes
dioxide (as =0.81 =0.81
ClO2)
Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level (MRDL) - The highest level of a disinfectant allowed in drinking water.
There is convincing evidence that addition of a disinfectant is necessary for control of microbial contaminants.
Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level Goal (MRDLG) - The level of a drinking water disinfectant below which
there is no known or expected risk to health. MRDLGs do not reflect the benefits of the use of disinfectants to control
microbial contaminants.
Tastes and Odors: Taste Thresholds
e
Need to convince consumers that
id
r
do et ne
lo
rb be l
ca loro eno
the chemical taste is healthy
rm h
io on t nze
fo rac
ch rm
h
ch p
di loro
de rofo
ch l 2
N Cl
O l
C
C
N -
2
lo
Cl
O
H
H
Taste threshold (mg/L)
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
Chlorine Taste Acceptance
pH 6 2 dispersed
1.5 cell associated
What do you 1 model
2nd model
conclude? 0.5
0
0 50
86 100
Time (min)
CCl t to get pC* of 4 is (86 min)*(0.36 mg/L)=31 (min mg/L)
Conclusions from Virus in Kidney
Cells
The rate of virus deactivation dropped
significantly when the virus particles were
inside kidney cells
The deactivation of embedded virus
particles can not be described by a single
first order reaction (________________)
Chicks Law is violated
What is controlling the rate of virus
deactivation?
Scales of the Embedded Virus
Deactivation
Location rate
Dispersed Very fast
Inside cell with
1000 nm
disrupted cell Slow
wall
1 mm
Inside intact
Very slow
cell
Virus particles are about 20 nm
HOCl are about 0.2 nm
Mass Transport and Chlorine
Protection
CV=15
0.12 1
Probability of ingesting
Cumulative probability
exactly k pathogens
0.1 0.8
0.08
0.6
0.06 45% chance of not
0.4
0.04 getting sick!
0.02 0.2
0 0
0 10 20 30
Number of pathogens
CV CV=1
k
e CV
Probability of ingesting
Cumulative probability
Pk 0.4 1
exactly k pathogens
k! 0.3 0.8
0.6
CV
0 0.2
0.4
CV CV
Pk 0 e e 0.1 0.2
0!
0 0
Pk 0 1 e CV 0 2 4
Number of pathogens
Charges 0 +1 -2 +1 -1
Cl2 + H2O H+ + HOCl + Cl-
Hypochlorous acid HOCl H+ + OCl- Hypochlorite ion
The sum of HOCl and OCl- is called the
____ ______ residual
free chlorine _______
Chlorine and pH
low
effective at ________ 0.4
0.3
pH 0.2
0.1 pk
Dissociation constant is 0
10-7.5 5 6 7 8 9 10
equilibrium at pH 7.5
Ammonia Reactions
-3 +1 -3+1 +1
NH3(aq) + HOCl NH2Cl+ H2O
Combined chlorine
NH2Cl + HOCl NHCl2+ H2O
Substitution reactions…
The combined chlorine maintains its oxidizing
potential
Breakpoint Chlorination
Oxidation states
Carbon in organic matter (-4)
Carbon in carbon dioxide (+4)
Chlorine in HOCl (+1)
Chloride (-1)
Therefore should take 4 moles of chlorine
(Cl2) per mole of organic carbon
23.6 g chlorine/g organic carbon
Chlorine Demand vs. Total Organic
Carbon
Chlorine Demand (mg/L)
2.5
2
1.5
1
y = 0.51x - 0.16
0.5
R2 = 0.93
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.5 mg chlorine
Total Organic Carbon (mg/L)
mg carbon
Reaction with organic compounds
with unsaturated linkages
Cl OH
C C + HOCl → C C
H H H H
Chlorine doesn’t oxidize the organic carbon
Chlorine maintains its oxidation number
Cl2
Concentration Time Ct Factor Reduction
Protozoa (mg/l) (min) (mg-min/l) (%) Reference
Cryptosporidium 80 90 7200* 90 Korich et al,
parvum 1990
Entamoeba 1.0 50 50 100 Snow, 1956
histolytica
Giardia lamblia -- -- 68-389 99.9 AWWA, 1999
Naegleria fowleri 0.5-1.0 60 45 99.99 de Jonckheere
and van de
Voorde,
1976
The Case for a Residual
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/en/gdwq3_4.pdf
WHO on Regrowth (2)
Transparent
1.05 m flexible tube
1.78 m (0.5”)
PVC needle
valve 0.5” PVC tube
¶ 1.0 m
ò
cs
r V ×n
ˆ dA = - ò
¶t cv
r dV 1.5” PVC
overflow tube
Transparent
1.05 m flexible tube
¶ h0
1.78 m (0.5”)
Vor Aor =- ò
¶t cv
dV
PVC needle
valve 0.5” PVC tube
dV Ares dh
Vor Aor Water in the distribution tank
dt dt
Ares
h t
dh
K or Aor 2g
h0 h
dt
0
Ares
2 h1/ 2 h01/ 2 t
K or Aor 2g
2
1/ 2 tK or Aor 2 g
h h0
2 Ares
2
1/ 2 g Aor g
h h0 tK or
Aor h h0 tK or
Ares 2
Ares 2
Finding Q as f(t)
Aor g
Q K or Aor 2 gh h h0 tK or
Ares 2
Aor g
Q K or Aor 2g h0 tK or
Ares 2
Q0
Aor Set the valve to get desired dose initially
K or 2 gh0
Surprise… Q decreases linearly!
Aor g Aor
Q0
Q K or Aor 2g h0 tK or
Ares 2 K or 2 gh0
K or Q0 2g Q0 g Q 1 tQ0
Q h0 tK or h0
Ares 2 h0
K or 2 gh0
K or Ares 2 gh0
Q0 h0
Q tQ0
1
Relationship between Q0 and Ares? Q0 2 Ares h0
Flow at Q0 for 4 days (tdesign) would empty reservoir
Q0 hres
Q0tdesign Ares hres
Ares tdesign
Q 1 t hres CCl2 1 t hres
1 1
Q0 2 tdesign h0 CCl2 2 tdesign h0
0
Hypochorinator Fix
http://web.mit.edu/d-lab/honduras.htm
Conclusions
Reflections
Four genera
Lagovirus
Vesivirus
Norwalk-like viruses (Noroviruses or NLVs) Cause
Sapporo-like viruses (Sapoviruses or SLVs) disease in
humans
Single structural protein that makes up the
viral capsid
27-40 nm in diameter
Norovirus: Infectious Dose