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Chapter 1

Introduction
Objectives
• The aims of this chapter are to introduce:
– Uses of Computer Networks
– Network Hardware
– Network Software
– Network Reference Models
– Example Networks
– Network Standardization
Introduction
• In the old days, computer systems were highly
centralized.
• Now, a large number of autonomous computers are
interconnected to do the job  Computer network 
Distributed systems.
• Computer network v.s. distributed system
– Computer network: a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology.
– Distributed systems: a collection of autonomous
computers appears to its users as a single coherent
system. Middleware responsible for implementing model.
• Examples:
– The Internet is not a single network but a network of
networks.
– The Web is a distributed system that runs on top of the
Internet.
1.1 Uses of Computer Networks
• Possible uses of computer networks are:

1) Business Applications.

2) Home Applications.

3) Mobile Users.

4) Social Issues.
1.1.1 Business Applications
• Some of the uses of the Internet for Business
Applications are:
1) Resource sharing (client server model, Fig. 1&2).
• programs, equipment, and data.
2) Providing a communication media among
employees.
• E-mail, VoIP, videoconferencing and report writing.
3) Doing business electronically with other
companies.
• suppliers and customers.
4) Doing business electronically with consumers.
• e-commerce. Airlines, bookstores, & music vendors.
1.1.1 Business Applications (contd.)
1.1.2 Home Applications
• Uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:
1) Access to remote information.
• arts, business, cooking, health, government, history,
hobbies, recreation, science, sports, travel, fun, on-line
newspapers and digital library, etc.
2) Person-to-person communication.
• E-mail, chat-rooms, newsgroups, telephone calls,
video phone, Internet radio, and tele-learning.
3) Interactive entertainment.
• Game playing, video on demand (interactive)
4) Electronic commerce.
• home shopping, pay bills, manage bank accounts, and handle
investments.
5) ubiquitous computing, in which computing is embedded
into everyday life (sensors connected to home equip.).
1.1.3 Mobile Users
• Require wireless networks. Examples are:
– Notebook computers and personal digital
assistants (PDAs).
– fleets of trucks, taxis, delivery vehicles, and
repairpersons for keeping in contact with home.
– Military
– Wireless parking meters
– Food, drink, and other vending machines
– utility (e.g. electricity, gas, water) meter reading.
– M-commerce
1.1.4 Social Issues
• Contents on newsgroup,
• when set up on topics like politics, religion, or sex, trouble occurs.
• Government versus citizen’s rights.
• Employee rights versus employer rights.
• Anonymous messages (sometimes desirable).
• Network neutrality
• Digital Millennium Copyright Act (copywrite violation).
• Along with the good comes the bad. Life seems to be
like that.
– Junk email
– Ill-informed, misleading, or downright wrong info.
– Identity theft
1.2 Network Hardware
• Networks are classified by:
1) Transmission technology
• Broadcast networks
• Point-to-point networks

2) Scale
• Local area networks (LANs)
• Metropolitan area networks (MANs not Men)
• Wide area networks (WANs)
• Inter-networks ( internet vs. Internet)
• Wireless networks
• Home networks
Network Hardware: Transmission

• Broadcast networks:
– broadcast networks have a single communication
channel that is shared by all the machines on the
network. There are three addressing possibilities:
• Unicasting addressing,
• Broadcasting addressing,
• Multicasting addressing.

• Point-to-point networks:
– point-to-point networks have many communication
connections between individual pairs of machines.
Network Hardware: Scale
Network Hardware: LAN
• LANs are privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
• LAN characteristics
1) The size is restricted  The worst-case transmission
time is bounded and known in advance  Certain
designs are possible and network management can be
simplified.
2) Transmission technology high speed  10Gpbs
3) Topology (physical and local),
• Bus (Fig. 1.7a)
• Ring (Fig. 1.7b)
• Star (Hub)
Network Hardware: LAN

Figure 1.7: Two broadcast networks: (a) Bus (b) Ring


Network Hardware: LAN
• Broadcast networks can be further divided into static
and dynamic, depending on how the channel is
allocated.
– Static allocation : A typical static allocation would be to
divide time into discrete intervals and use a round-robin
algorithm, allowing each machine to broadcast only when
its time slot comes up.
– Dynamic allocation methods for a common channel are:
• Centralized: A single entity determines who goes next
• Decentralized: Each machine decides for itself whether to
transmit. (Many algorithms are designed to bring order out of the
potential chaos. )
Network Hardware: MAN
• A metropolitan area network (MAN), covers a city.
The best-known example of a MAN is the cable
television network. It is basically a bigger version of
a LAN and normally uses similar technology.
• Examples
– One reason for distinguishing MANs as a special
category is that a standard has been adopted for them. It
is called DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus).
– A MAN can be based on cable TV, (Fig.1.8)
– Wireless MAN, has been standardized as IEEE 802.16.

• A key aspect of MAN is that there is a broadcast


medium to which all the computers are attached.
Network Hardware: MAN

Figure 1.8: A metropolitan area network based on cable TV.


Network Hardware: WAN
• A WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a
country or continent.
• A WAN consists of a collection of machines
intended for running user programs (hosts, end
systems) and a pure communication subnet.
• The subnet consists of two distinct components:
– Transmission lines (also called circuits, channels, or
trunks) move bits between machines.
– Switching elements (routers) are specialized computers
used to connect three or more transmission lines. When
data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element
must choose an outgoing line to forward them on.
Network Hardware: WAN
• In this model, Fig.1.9, each host is connected to a LAN on
which a router is present. The collection of communication
lines and routers form the subnet.

Figure 1.9: Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet.


Network Hardware: WAN
• Nearly all WANs have packet-switched subnets. A stream
of packets resulting from some initial message is illustrated
in Fig. 1-10.

Figure 1.10: A stream of packets from sender to receiver.


Network Hardware: Wireless network

• Wireless networks can be divided into three


main categories:
1) System interconnection
• Bluetooth / IEEE 802.15

2) Wireless LANs
• IEEE 802.11

3) Wireless WANs
• Cellular telephones: 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G for low speed
• IEEE 802.16 for high speed
Network Hardware: Wireless network:
(1) System Interconnection
1) System interconnection is all about interconnecting the
components of a computer using short-range radio
(Bluetooth), Fig.1.11(a). The master tells the slaves what
addresses to use, when they can broadcast, how long they
can transmit, what frequencies they can use, and so on.
Network Hardware: Wireless network:
(2) Wireless LANs
2) Wireless LANs are systems in which every computer has a radio
modem and antenna with which it can communicate with other systems.
Often there is an antenna on the ceiling that the machines talk to,
Fig.1.11(b). The standard for wireless LANs is called IEEE 802.11
Network Hardware: Wireless network:
(3) Wireless WANs
3) Wireless WANs
• The radio network used for cellular
telephones is an example of a low-bandwidth
wireless WAN. This system has already
gone through four generations.
• High-bandwidth wireless WANs are also
being developed. This service is often called
local multipoint distribution service. The
standard is called IEEE 802.16.
Network Hardware: Wireless network

• Wireless networks hook up to the wired network at some


point to provide access to files, databases, and the Internet.
• For example:
(a) Individual mobile computers, Fig.1.12(a),
(b) A flying LAN, Fig.1.12(b).

Figure 1.12: (a) Individual mobile computers (b) A flying LAN


Network Hardware: Home network
• Many home devices can be networked:
– Computers (desktop PC, PDA, shared peripherals)
– Entertainment (TV, DVD, VCR, camera, stereo, MP3)
– Telecommunication (telephone, cell phone, intercom, fax)
– Appliances (microwave, fridge, clock, furnace, airco)
– Telemetry (utility meter, burglar alarm, babycam).
• Requirements:
– easy to install,
– foolproof in operation,
– low price,
– sufficient capacity,
– to be expandable,
– secure and reliable.
Network Hardware: Internetwork
• An internetwork or just internet is a collection of
interconnected networks. (internet vs Internet)
• A common form of internet is a collection of LANs
connected by a WAN.
• Differences among WANs, subnets, networks, and
internetworks.
– WAN = subnet + hosts
– Subnet + hosts  WAN network
– Cable + hosts  LAN network
– Many interconnected networks  internetworks.
• Different owners
• Different technologies.
Network Software
• Protocol Hierarchies

• Design Issues for the Layers

• Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

• Service Primitives

• The Relationship of Services to Protocols


Network Software: Protocol hierarchies
• Layers, protocols, and interfaces:

To reduce design complexity,


most networks are organized
as a stack of layers.

The number of layers

The name of each layer

The function of each layer

The content of each layer

Differ from network to network.


Network Software: Protocol hierarchies

• A protocol is an agreement between the communicating


parties on how communication is to proceed.
• The peers are the entities comprising the corresponding
layers on different machines. The peers may be OS
kernel, processes, hardware devices, or even human
beings. It is the peers that communicate by using the
protocol.
• Communication: actual and virtual.
• Service interfaces:
– The interface defines which primitive operations and
services the lower layer makes available to the upper one.
– It is common that different hosts use different
implementations.
Network Software: Protocol hierarchies

• A set of layers and protocols is called a network


architecture.
– The specification of an architecture must contain enough
information to allow an implementer to write the program
or build the hardware for each layer so that it will correctly
obey the appropriate protocol.
– Neither the details of the implementation nor the
specification of the interfaces is part of the architecture.
– The interface on all machines in a network need not be
the same, provided that each machine can correctly use
all the protocols
• A list of protocols used by a certain system, one
protocol per layer, is called a protocol stack.
Network Software: Protocol hierarchies
• Two philosophers (layer 3), one speaks English and one speaks French.
• They each engage a translator (layer 2), each of whom in turn contacts a
secretary (layer 1).
– Philosopher 1 wishes to pass a message (in English) across the 2/3 interface to his
translator, saying ''I like rabbits,'' as illustrated in Fig. 1-14.
– The translators have agreed on a neutral language known to both of them, Dutch, so
the message is translated. The choice of language is the layer 2 protocol and is up to
the layer 2 peer processes.
– The translator then gives the message to a secretary for transmission, by, for
example, fax (the layer 1 protocol).
• When the message arrives:
– it is translated into French and passed across the 2/3 interface to philosopher 2.
• The translators can switch from Dutch to say, Finnish, at will, provided
that they both agree, and neither changes his interface with either layer
1 or layer 3.
• Similarly, the secretaries can switch from fax to e-mail or telephone
without disturbing (or even informing) the other layers.
Fig. 1.14: The philosopher-translator-secretary architecture.
Network Software: Protocol hierarchies

Figure 1.15: Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5


1.3.2 Design Issues for the Layers
• Some of the design issues for the layers are:
1. Addressing: to specify a specific destination. The
protocol must determine how many logical channels the
connection corresponds to and what their priorities are.
2. Channel Control
• Simplex/duplex
• Data channel/control channel
3. Error control: Detection/correction.
4. Flow control: not to drown the slow receiver with data.
5. Disassembling/reassembling
6. Multiplexing: is needed in the physical layer, for example,
where all the traffic for all connections has to be sent over
at most a few physical circuits.
7. Routing: When there are multiple paths between source
and destination, a route must be chosen.
Network Software: Service issues
• Two main service types:
– Connection-oriented service
– Connectionless service
• Each service characterized by a quality of service (QoS).
Network Software: Service primitives

• Five service primitives for implementing a simple


connection-oriented service.
Network Software: Service primitives

• Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction on


a connection-oriented network.
The Relationship of Services to Protocols
The Relationship of Services to Protocols

• A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer


provides to the layer above it. The service defines what
operations the layer is prepared to perform on behalf of its
users, but it says nothing at all about how these operations
are implemented. A service relates to an interface between
two layers, with the lower layer being the service provider
and the upper layer being the service user.
• A protocol is a set of rules governing the format and
meaning of the packets, or messages that are exchanged by
the peer entities within a layer. Entities use protocols to
implement their service definitions. They are free to change
their protocols at will, provided they do not change the
service visible to their users.
• the service and the protocol are completely decoupled.
The Relationship of Services to Protocols

• An analogy with programming languages


– A service is like an abstract data type or an
object in an object-oriented language. It
defines the operations that can be performed
on an object but does not specify how these
operations are implemented.
– A protocol relates to the implementation of the
service and as such is not visible to the user
of the service.
Reference Models

• The OSI Reference Model

• The TCP/IP Reference Model

• A Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP

• A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols

• A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model


The OSI reference model
• Design principles:
1) A layer should be created where a different
abstraction is needed.
2) Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3) The function of each layer should be chosen with an
eye toward defining internationally standardized
protocols.
4) The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize
the information flow across the interfaces.
5) The number of layers should be:
• large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and
• small enough that the architecture does not become
unwieldy.
The OSI reference model
The Physical Layer (layer 1)
• The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits
over a communication channel.
• Typical questions here are:
• how many volts should be used to represent a 1 and
how many for a 0,
• how many nanoseconds a bit lasts,
• whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in
both directions,
• how the initial connection is established and how it is
torn down when both sides are finished, and
• how many pins the network connector has and what
each pin is used for.
• The design issues here largely deal with mechanical,
electrical, and timing interfaces, and the physical
transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.
The Data Link Layer (layer 2)
• The main task of the data link layer is to transform
a raw transmission facility into a line that appears
free of undetected transmission errors to the
network layer.
• The design issues are:
– how to create and recognize frame boundaries,
– how to solve the problems caused by damaged, lost, and
duplicate frames,
– how to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow
receiver in data,
– how to solve the competition between acknowledgement
frames and data frames(for full-duplex communication),
– how to control access to the shared channel (for
broadcast networks).
The Network Layer (layer 3)
• The network layer controls the operation of the
subnet.
• Design issue are:
• how to route packets from source to destination:
– Routes can be based on static tables that are "wired into"
the network and rarely changed.
– They can also be determined at the start of each
conversion.
– They can be highly dynamic, being anew for each packet,
to reflect the current network load.
• how to control congestion.
• how to connect heterogeneous networks (different
addressing, different maximum packet size,
different protocols).
The Transport Layer (layer 4)
• The function of the transport layer is to accept data
from the session layer, split it up into smaller units if
need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure
that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.
Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently and in a
way that isolates the upper layers from the inevitable
changes in the hardware technology.
• The design issues are:
– how to make the multiplexing transparent to the session
layer,
– how to determine what types of service to provide the
session layer,
– how to tell which messages belongs to which connection,
– how to regulate the flow of information.
The Session Layer (layer 5)
• The session layer allows users on different
machines to establish sessions between them.
– A session allows ordinary data transport, as does the
transport layer, but it also provides enhanced services
useful in some applications.
– A session might be used to allow a user to log into a
remote timesharing system or to transfer a file between
two machines.
• Design issues are:
– how to manage dialogue control,
– how to manage token,
– how to synchronize different sessions.
The Presentation Layer (layer 6)
• The presentation layer is concerned with the
syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted.
• The design issues are:
– how to encode data in a standard agreed upon,
– how to efficiently convert from the representation
used inside the computer to the network standard
representation and back.
The Application Layer (layer 7)
• The application layer contains a variety of
protocols that are commonly needed by users.
• Some application layer protocols:
– HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), which is the basis
for the World Wide Web.
– telnet (network virtual terminal)
– ftp (file transfer protocol)
– DNS
– DHCP
– SMTP
– POP.
1.4.2 The TCP/IP Reference Model
The Host-to-Network Layer
• The host has to connect to the network using
some protocol so it can send IP packets to it.
• This protocol is not defined and varies from
host to host and network to network.
• Books and papers about the TCP/IP model
rarely discuss it.
• Possible connections
• LAN  router  Internet
• Dial-up  router  Internet
• ADSL  router  Internet
The Internet Layer
• Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any
network and have them travel independently to the
destination. They may even arrive in a different
order than they were sent, in which case it is the
job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order
delivery is desired.
• The internet layer defines an official packet format
and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol).
• Some design issues are:
• Packet routing
• Avoiding congestion
• QoS
The Transport Layer
• It is designed to allow peer entities on the source
and destination hosts to carry on a conversation.
• Two end-to-end transport protocols have been
defined here:
– The first one, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), is
a reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte
stream originating on one machine to be delivered
without error on any other machine in the internet.
• Sequencing control and flow control.
– The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram
Protocol), is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for
applications that do not want TCP's sequencing or flow
control and wish to provide their own.
The Application Layer
• It contains all the higher-level protocols.
• Some examples are:
– virtual terminal (TELNET),
– file transfer (FTP),
– electronic mail (SMTP), as shown in Fig. 1-22.
– the Domain Name System (DNS) for mapping host names
onto their network addresses,
– NNTP, the protocol for moving USENET news articles
around,
– HTTP, the protocol for fetching pages on the World Wide
Web,
– DHCP, and
– POP.
1.4.2 The TCP/IP Reference Model

Protocols and networks in the TCP/IP model initially.

Figure 1.22: The TCP/IP reference model with some protocols


Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

• Similarities of the OSI & TCP/IP reference models


1) Protocol stack
2) Layer functionality
3) End-end service provider vs. end-end service user

• Differences of the OSI & TCP/IP reference models


1) Services/interfaces/protocols
• The OSI makes the distinction explicit
• The TCP/IP model did not originally clearly distinguish them
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

2) Models/protocols:
• The OSI reference model was devised before the corresponding
protocols were invented.
• The TCP/IP protocols came first, and the model was really just a
description of the existing protocols.
3) Number of Layers:
• The OSI model has 7 layer
• The TCP/IP has 4 layers;
– Network, transport, application layers common; the rest different.
4) Connection:
• OSI: Connection-oriented & connectionless communication in
network layer and connection-oriented in transport layer.
• TCP/IP: connectionless communication in network layer and
connection-oriented & connectionless in transport layer
A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols

Why the OSI did not take over the world?

1) Bad timing.

2) Bad technology.

3) Bad implementations.

4) Bad politics.
A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols
1) Bad Timing:
– The time at which a standard is established is absolutely critical to its
success.
– The first elephant represents a burst of research activity.
– The second elephant represents the billion-dollar wave of investment
hits.
A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols

2) Bad technology:
– Both the model and the protocols are flawed,
extraordinarily complex, difficult to implement and
inefficient in operation.

3) Bad implementation:
– The initial implementations were huge, unwieldy, and
slow.

4) Bad politics:
– The OSI model was thought to be the creature of
government bureaucrats.
A critique of the TCP/IP model and protocols

• Problems:
1) Service, interface, & protocol not distinguished
2) Not a general model
3) Host-to-network “layer” not really a layer
4) No mention of physical and data link layers
5) Minor protocols deeply entrenched, hard to
replace
The Hybrid Reference Model

Figure 1.24: The hybrid reference model to be used in this book.


1.5 Example Networks
1) The Internet

2) Connection-Oriented Networks:
• X.25, Frame Relay, and ATM

3) Ethernet

4) Wireless LANs: 802:11


(1) The Internet
• The ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency)

• NSFNET (National Science Foundation)

• Internet usage

• Architecture of the Internet


The ARPANET
• In 1960, the DoD awarded a contract to the RAND Cooperation to design
a command-and-control network that could survive a nuclear war. Paul
Baran came up with the highly distributed and fault-tolerant design. The
Pentagon asked AT&T to build a prototype. AT&T dismissed the idea.

(a) (b)

Fig.1.25: (a) Structure of the telephone system. (b) Baran’s distributed switching system.
The ARPANET (contd.)
• In 1967, ARPA’s then director, Larry Roberts, determined
to build what later became known as the ARPANET.
– The subnet would consist of minicomputers called IMP (Interface
Message Processors) connected by 56-kbps transmission lines.
– Hosts would be connected IMPs by short wires.

Figure 1.26: The original ARPANET design.


The ARPANET (contd.)

Figure 1.27: Growth of the ARPANET (a) December 1969. (b) July 1970.
(c) March 1971. (d) April 1972. (e) September 1972.
NSFNET
• One backbone network that connected six NSF super computer centers.
• About 20 regional networks connected to the backbone.
• ARPNET and NSFNET connected at Carnegie-Mellon University (CMU).

Figure 1.28: The NSFNET backbone in 1988.


NSFNET
• NSFNET growth
– 56 kbps (leased lines) (1988)
• NSFNET was overloaded from the word go.
– 448 kbps (fiber optic channels) (1988)
• Soon overwhelmed.
– 1.5 Mbps (1990)
– 45 Mbps (ANSNET, Advanced Networks and
Services) (1990). Sold to America Online in 1995
– NSFNET  HEAVEN  many different
commercial network operators
Internet usage
• In 1983, the TCP/IP became the only official protocol.
• In the mid 1980s, people began viewing the collection of
networks as the internet.
• The Internet exploded in size with the emergence of the
World Wide Web (WWW) in the early 1990s.
• Up until the early 1990s, the applications are: email,
news, remote login, file transfer.
• Later it switched to email-for-everyman, then the Web
and peer-to-peer content distribution, such as Napster.
• Now real-time media distribution, social networks
(Facebook), and microblogging (Twitter) are taking off.
Architecture of the Internet

Figure 1.29: Overview of the Internet Architecture


Architecture of the Internet
• ISP, Internet Service Provider

• DSL, Digital Subscriber Line

• DSLAM, Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer

• CMTS, Cable Modem Termination System

• FTTH, Fiber to the Home

• POP, Point of Presence

• IXP, Internet eXchange Point


Example networks: X.25, Frame relay

• X.25
– The first public data network
– Deployed in the 1970s
– It operated for about a decade with mixed success

• Frame relay
– Replaced X.25 in 1980s
– Enjoyed a modest success and is still in use in
places today.
Example networks: ATM
• ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode
• ATM virtual circuits
– Permanent virtual circuits
– Temporal virtual circuits
Example networks: ATM
• ATM cells
– 5 bytes for header and 48 for payload.
– ATM guarantees never to deliver cells out of order
– 155Mbps or 622Mbps.
Example networks: ATM
• The ATM reference model.
Example networks: ATM
• The ATM layers and sublayers and their functions.
Example networks: Ethernet
• In the early 1970s ALOHANET (Norman Abramson).
• Bob Metcalfe spent one summer in Hawaii working for
Abramson.
• In 1976 Ethernet (the first LAN) by Bob Metcalfe and David
Boggs.

Architecture of the original Ethernet.


Example networks: Ethernet
• CSMA/CD
• DIX Standard in 1978  IEEE 802.3 in 1983
• Metcalfe 3ComOver 100 million of Ethernet
adapters
• Ethernet 2.94Mbps  10Mbps  100Mbps 
1000Mbps  …
• The war between Ethernet (IEEE802.3), Token bus
(IEEE802.4, GE), Token ring (IEEE802.5, IBM)
 The winner is Ethernet!
1.5.4 Wireless LANs: 802.11

(a)Wireless network with an access point.


(b)Ad hoc network.
1.5.4 Wireless LANs: 802.11
• Problems
– The hidden station problem and the exposed
station problem (see the next slide)
– Multipath fading
– A great deal of software is not aware of mobility.
– Move away from the ceiling-mounted base
station (see the next slide).
1.5.4 Wireless LANs: 802.11

Figure 1.36: The range of a single radio may not cover the entire system.
1.5.4 Wireless LANs: 802.11

Multipath fading
Network Standardization
• Why standardization?
– Many network vendors and suppliers exist, each with its
own ideas of how things should be done. Without
coordination, there would be complete chaos, and users
would get nothing done. The only way out is to agree on
some network standards.
– Standards increase the market for products adhering to
the standard

• Standards fall into two categories:


– De facto ( Latin “from the fact”):
• PC for small office and home / Unix for the CS
– De jure (Latin “by law”)
Network Standardization: ITU
• Main sectors
– Radio communications (ITU-R)
– Telecommunications Standardization (ITU-T)
– Development (ITU-D)
• ITU-T has four classes of members:
– National governments (200 or so)
– Sector members (AT7 T, Cisco, Sun, Intel, Sony)
– Associate members
– Regulatory agencies
• ITU > (14) Study Groups > Working parties > Expert Teams
> ad hoc groups
• ITU Recommendations: V.24 (EIR RS-232), V.90 (56kbps)
Network Standardization: ISO
• ISO (International Standards Organization,
International Organization of Standardization)
• ISO > (200) TC(Technical Committees) > SC
(Subcommittees) > WG (Working groups)
• Members
– Volunteers
– ANSI, IEEE, NIST
• Standardization procedure:
– CD (Committee Draft)
– DIS (Draft International Standard)
– IS (International Standard)
Who’s Who in International Standards (1)
Who’s Who in International Standards (2)

Figure 1.38: The 802 working groups. The important ones are marked with *.
The ones marked with  are hibernating. The one marked with † gave up.
1.7 Metric Units (contd.)

Figure 1.39: The principal metric prefixes.

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