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Introduction
Objectives
• The aims of this chapter are to introduce:
– Uses of Computer Networks
– Network Hardware
– Network Software
– Network Reference Models
– Example Networks
– Network Standardization
Introduction
• In the old days, computer systems were highly
centralized.
• Now, a large number of autonomous computers are
interconnected to do the job Computer network
Distributed systems.
• Computer network v.s. distributed system
– Computer network: a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology.
– Distributed systems: a collection of autonomous
computers appears to its users as a single coherent
system. Middleware responsible for implementing model.
• Examples:
– The Internet is not a single network but a network of
networks.
– The Web is a distributed system that runs on top of the
Internet.
1.1 Uses of Computer Networks
• Possible uses of computer networks are:
1) Business Applications.
2) Home Applications.
3) Mobile Users.
4) Social Issues.
1.1.1 Business Applications
• Some of the uses of the Internet for Business
Applications are:
1) Resource sharing (client server model, Fig. 1&2).
• programs, equipment, and data.
2) Providing a communication media among
employees.
• E-mail, VoIP, videoconferencing and report writing.
3) Doing business electronically with other
companies.
• suppliers and customers.
4) Doing business electronically with consumers.
• e-commerce. Airlines, bookstores, & music vendors.
1.1.1 Business Applications (contd.)
1.1.2 Home Applications
• Uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:
1) Access to remote information.
• arts, business, cooking, health, government, history,
hobbies, recreation, science, sports, travel, fun, on-line
newspapers and digital library, etc.
2) Person-to-person communication.
• E-mail, chat-rooms, newsgroups, telephone calls,
video phone, Internet radio, and tele-learning.
3) Interactive entertainment.
• Game playing, video on demand (interactive)
4) Electronic commerce.
• home shopping, pay bills, manage bank accounts, and handle
investments.
5) ubiquitous computing, in which computing is embedded
into everyday life (sensors connected to home equip.).
1.1.3 Mobile Users
• Require wireless networks. Examples are:
– Notebook computers and personal digital
assistants (PDAs).
– fleets of trucks, taxis, delivery vehicles, and
repairpersons for keeping in contact with home.
– Military
– Wireless parking meters
– Food, drink, and other vending machines
– utility (e.g. electricity, gas, water) meter reading.
– M-commerce
1.1.4 Social Issues
• Contents on newsgroup,
• when set up on topics like politics, religion, or sex, trouble occurs.
• Government versus citizen’s rights.
• Employee rights versus employer rights.
• Anonymous messages (sometimes desirable).
• Network neutrality
• Digital Millennium Copyright Act (copywrite violation).
• Along with the good comes the bad. Life seems to be
like that.
– Junk email
– Ill-informed, misleading, or downright wrong info.
– Identity theft
1.2 Network Hardware
• Networks are classified by:
1) Transmission technology
• Broadcast networks
• Point-to-point networks
2) Scale
• Local area networks (LANs)
• Metropolitan area networks (MANs not Men)
• Wide area networks (WANs)
• Inter-networks ( internet vs. Internet)
• Wireless networks
• Home networks
Network Hardware: Transmission
• Broadcast networks:
– broadcast networks have a single communication
channel that is shared by all the machines on the
network. There are three addressing possibilities:
• Unicasting addressing,
• Broadcasting addressing,
• Multicasting addressing.
• Point-to-point networks:
– point-to-point networks have many communication
connections between individual pairs of machines.
Network Hardware: Scale
Network Hardware: LAN
• LANs are privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
• LAN characteristics
1) The size is restricted The worst-case transmission
time is bounded and known in advance Certain
designs are possible and network management can be
simplified.
2) Transmission technology high speed 10Gpbs
3) Topology (physical and local),
• Bus (Fig. 1.7a)
• Ring (Fig. 1.7b)
• Star (Hub)
Network Hardware: LAN
2) Wireless LANs
• IEEE 802.11
3) Wireless WANs
• Cellular telephones: 1G, 2G, 2.5G, 3G for low speed
• IEEE 802.16 for high speed
Network Hardware: Wireless network:
(1) System Interconnection
1) System interconnection is all about interconnecting the
components of a computer using short-range radio
(Bluetooth), Fig.1.11(a). The master tells the slaves what
addresses to use, when they can broadcast, how long they
can transmit, what frequencies they can use, and so on.
Network Hardware: Wireless network:
(2) Wireless LANs
2) Wireless LANs are systems in which every computer has a radio
modem and antenna with which it can communicate with other systems.
Often there is an antenna on the ceiling that the machines talk to,
Fig.1.11(b). The standard for wireless LANs is called IEEE 802.11
Network Hardware: Wireless network:
(3) Wireless WANs
3) Wireless WANs
• The radio network used for cellular
telephones is an example of a low-bandwidth
wireless WAN. This system has already
gone through four generations.
• High-bandwidth wireless WANs are also
being developed. This service is often called
local multipoint distribution service. The
standard is called IEEE 802.16.
Network Hardware: Wireless network
• Service Primitives
2) Models/protocols:
• The OSI reference model was devised before the corresponding
protocols were invented.
• The TCP/IP protocols came first, and the model was really just a
description of the existing protocols.
3) Number of Layers:
• The OSI model has 7 layer
• The TCP/IP has 4 layers;
– Network, transport, application layers common; the rest different.
4) Connection:
• OSI: Connection-oriented & connectionless communication in
network layer and connection-oriented in transport layer.
• TCP/IP: connectionless communication in network layer and
connection-oriented & connectionless in transport layer
A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols
1) Bad timing.
2) Bad technology.
3) Bad implementations.
4) Bad politics.
A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols
1) Bad Timing:
– The time at which a standard is established is absolutely critical to its
success.
– The first elephant represents a burst of research activity.
– The second elephant represents the billion-dollar wave of investment
hits.
A Critique of the OSI Model and Protocols
2) Bad technology:
– Both the model and the protocols are flawed,
extraordinarily complex, difficult to implement and
inefficient in operation.
3) Bad implementation:
– The initial implementations were huge, unwieldy, and
slow.
4) Bad politics:
– The OSI model was thought to be the creature of
government bureaucrats.
A critique of the TCP/IP model and protocols
• Problems:
1) Service, interface, & protocol not distinguished
2) Not a general model
3) Host-to-network “layer” not really a layer
4) No mention of physical and data link layers
5) Minor protocols deeply entrenched, hard to
replace
The Hybrid Reference Model
2) Connection-Oriented Networks:
• X.25, Frame Relay, and ATM
3) Ethernet
• Internet usage
(a) (b)
Fig.1.25: (a) Structure of the telephone system. (b) Baran’s distributed switching system.
The ARPANET (contd.)
• In 1967, ARPA’s then director, Larry Roberts, determined
to build what later became known as the ARPANET.
– The subnet would consist of minicomputers called IMP (Interface
Message Processors) connected by 56-kbps transmission lines.
– Hosts would be connected IMPs by short wires.
Figure 1.27: Growth of the ARPANET (a) December 1969. (b) July 1970.
(c) March 1971. (d) April 1972. (e) September 1972.
NSFNET
• One backbone network that connected six NSF super computer centers.
• About 20 regional networks connected to the backbone.
• ARPNET and NSFNET connected at Carnegie-Mellon University (CMU).
• X.25
– The first public data network
– Deployed in the 1970s
– It operated for about a decade with mixed success
• Frame relay
– Replaced X.25 in 1980s
– Enjoyed a modest success and is still in use in
places today.
Example networks: ATM
• ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode
• ATM virtual circuits
– Permanent virtual circuits
– Temporal virtual circuits
Example networks: ATM
• ATM cells
– 5 bytes for header and 48 for payload.
– ATM guarantees never to deliver cells out of order
– 155Mbps or 622Mbps.
Example networks: ATM
• The ATM reference model.
Example networks: ATM
• The ATM layers and sublayers and their functions.
Example networks: Ethernet
• In the early 1970s ALOHANET (Norman Abramson).
• Bob Metcalfe spent one summer in Hawaii working for
Abramson.
• In 1976 Ethernet (the first LAN) by Bob Metcalfe and David
Boggs.
Figure 1.36: The range of a single radio may not cover the entire system.
1.5.4 Wireless LANs: 802.11
Multipath fading
Network Standardization
• Why standardization?
– Many network vendors and suppliers exist, each with its
own ideas of how things should be done. Without
coordination, there would be complete chaos, and users
would get nothing done. The only way out is to agree on
some network standards.
– Standards increase the market for products adhering to
the standard
Figure 1.38: The 802 working groups. The important ones are marked with *.
The ones marked with are hibernating. The one marked with † gave up.
1.7 Metric Units (contd.)