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• Fourier analysis
• Bandwidth-limited signals
• Twisted Pair
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber Optics
2.2.1 Magnetic Media
• One of the most common ways to transport data from one
computer to another is to write them onto magnetic tape,
physically transport the tape to the destination machine, and
read them back in again.
• Bandwidth = (800 gigabytes/tape)*(1000 tapes/Box)/
(24*60*60) > 70 Gbps.
• No computer network can even approach this.
• The cost = 800 TB/5000 $ = 160 GB/$
• No network can beat that.
• The moral of the story is:
• Never underestimate the bandwidth of a station wagon full of
tapes hurtling down the highway.
2.2.2 Twisted Pair
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires,
typically about 1 mm thick. The wires are twisted together in
a helical form, just like a DNA molecule.
• The most common application of twisted pair is the
telephone system.
• Twisted pairs can run several kilometers without
amplification, but for longer distances, repeaters are needed.
• Twisted pairs can be used for transmitting either analog or
digital signals.
• The bandwidth depends on the thickness of the wire and the
distance traveled.
– Category 3, 5 (16MHz, 100MHz)
– Category 6,7 (250MHz, 600MHz)
2.2.2 Twisted Pair (contd.)
(a) Side view of a single fiber. (b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.
Fiber Cables
• Deployment
– Laid in the ground within a meter of the surface
– buried in trenches near the shore
– Lie on the bottom in deep water
• Connection
– Fiber sockets
– Spliced mechanically
– Fusion splice
• Detection
– Photodiode. The response time is 1ns, which limits
data rates to about 1Gbps.
Fiber Cables
• Light sources
– LED
– Semiconductor laser
• Advantages
– Higher bandwidths and Low attenuation.
– Not affected by power surges, electromagnetic
interference, power failures, or corrosive chemicals.
– Thin and lightweight.
– do not leak light and quite difficult to tap.
• Disadvantages
– Less familiar technology.
– Fiber interfaces more expensive.
Figure 2.11: The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.
2.3.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Advantages
– The infrared controller cannot control the TV of your
neighbor.
– More secure.
2.3.5 Lightwave Transmission
• LANs in two buildings can be connected via lasers
mounted on their rooftops as shown in Fig. 2-14..
• Advantages:
• Very high bandwidth and very low cost. It is also
relatively easy to install and, unlike microwave,
does not require a license.
• Disadvantages:
• Installation requires some skill.
• Laser beams cannot penetrate rain or thick fog.
• Heat from the sun during the daytime causes
convection currents to interfer with the laser beam
as shown in Fig. 2-14.
2.3.5 Lightwave Transmission (contd.)
• Globalstar
– 48 LEOs
– Relaying on the ground
• Teledesic
– Conceived in 1990 by mobile phone pioneer Craig
McCaw and Microsoft founder Bill gates
– Scheduled to go live in 2005 if all goes as planned.
– 30 LEOs
– Teledesic, is targeted at Internet users
Globalstar
• Switching
The Public Switched Telephone Network
Figure 2.20:
a) Fully-interconnected network: (A.G.Bell 1876). It was up to
the customer to string a wire between a pair of phones.
b) Centralized switch: first switching office (1878).
c) Two-level hierarchy. Eventually, the hierarchy grew to five
levels.
The Public Switched Telephone Network
Fig 2.22: The relationship of LATAs, LECs, and IXCs. All the circles are LEC
switching offices. Each hexagon belongs to the IXC whose number is on it.
The Local Loop
• A computer PSTN A computer
– The data must be converted to analog form for
transmission over the local loop.
– Between switching centers, digital transmission is used.
– For ISP1, the digital data must be converted back to
analog form.
• Transmission lines suffer from three major problems
– Attenuation is the loss of the energy as the signal propagates .
– Delay distortion, because different Fourier components travel
at different speeds.
– Noise is unwanted energy from sources other than the
transmitter (thermal noise, crosstalk, impulse noise).
The Local Loop
Figure 2.23: The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a computer to
computer call. Conversion is done by the modems and codecs.
Dialup Modems
• Attenuation and propagation speed are frequency dependent.
• Unfortunately, the square waves used in digital signals have a
wide frequency spectrum and thus are subject to strong
attenuation and delay distortion.
• These effects make baseband (DC) signaling unsuitable
except at slow speeds and over short distances.
• Digital modulation is accomplished with passband
transmission by modulating a carrier signal that sits in the
passband.
• A sine wave carrier (1000 to 2000 Hz), is introduced. Its
amplitude, frequency, or phase can be modulated to transmit
information.
• A modem (modulator-demodulator) is used.
Dialup Modems
(b) Amplitude
modulation
(c) Frequency
modulation
(d) Phase
modulation
Dialup Modems
• To go to higher and higher speeds, it is not
possible to just keep increasing the sampling rate
(Nyquist theorem).
– Most modems sample 2400 times/sec and focus on
getting more bits per sample.
• The number of samples per second is measured in
baud.
– During each baud, one symbol is sent.
– Thus, an n-baud line transmits n symbols/sec.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.26: (a) V.32 for 9600 bps. (b) V32 bis for 14,400 bps.
Dialup Modems
Figure 2.27: Bandwidth versus distance over category 3 UTP for DSL.
ADSL modems
• Design goals for xDSL
– The services must work over the existing
category 3 twisted pair local loops.
– They must not affect customer’s existing
telephones and fax machines.
– They must be much faster than 56kbps.
– They should be always on, with just a monthly
charge but no per-minute charge.
ADSL modems
• SONET/SDH
2.5.4 Trunks and Multiplexing
• It costs essentially the same amount of money to
install and maintain a high-bandwidth trunk as a low-
bandwidth trunk between two switching offices.
• Consequently, telephone companies have developed
elaborate schemes for multiplexing many
conversations over a single trunk.
• These multiplexing schemes can be divided into two
basic categories:
– FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) and
– TDM (Time Division Multiplexing).
• AM radio broadcasting is an example of FDM & TDM
Frequency Division Multiplexing
• Date rates
– In 1990, 8 channels x 2.5Gbps per channel
– In 1998, 40 channels x 2.5Gbps per channel
– In 2001, 96 channels x 10 Gbps per channel
– The limit is 2500 channels x 10 Gbps per channel
• Optical amplifiers
– Previously, for every 100km, it was necessary to do opto-
electrical conversion and amplification.
– All optical amplifiers can regenerate the entire signal once
every 1000 km without the need for multiple opto-
electrical conversion.
Time Division Multiplexing
• TDM can be handled entirely by digital electronics.
– Since the local loops produce analog signals, a conversion
is needed from analog to digital in the end office, where all
the individual local loops come together to be combined
onto outgoing trunks.
• The analog signals are digitized in the end office by a
device called a codec (coder-decoder), producing a
series of 8-bit numbers.
– The codec makes 8000 samples per second (125
µsec/sample).
– This technique is called PCM (Pulse Code Modulation).
– PCM forms the heart of the modern telephone system.
– As a consequence, virtually all time intervals within the
telephone system are multiples of 125 µsec.
Time Division Multiplexing (contd.)
Figure 2.39:: (a) Circuit switching (b) Message switching (c) Packet switching
Packet Switching (contd.)
Figure 2-43. GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which uses
an eight-slot TDM system.
GSM—The Global System for Mobile
Communications (contd.)
• The TDM slots shown in Fig. 2-43 are part of a complex
framing hierarchy. Each TDM slot has a specific structure,
and groups of TDM slots form multiframes, also with a
specific structure. A simplified version of this hierarchy is
shown in Fig. 2-44. Here we can see that each TDM slot
consists of a 148-bit data frame that occupies the channel
for 577 µsec (including a 30-µsec guard time after each
slot). Each data frame starts and ends with three 0 bits, for
frame delineation purposes. It also contains two 57-bit
Information fields, each one having a control bit that
indicates whether the following Information field is for voice
or data. Between the Information fields is a 26-bit Sync
(training) field that is used by the receiver to synchronize to
the sender's frame boundaries.
GSM
Fig. (a) Binary chip sequences for four stations. (b) Bipolar chip sequences.
(c) Six examples of transmissions. (d) Recovery of station C's signal.
3G Mobile Phones: Digital Voice and Data
• Basic services an IMT-2000 network should provide
– High-quality voice transmission
– Messaging (replace e-mail, fax, SMS, chat, etc.)
– Multimedia (music, videos, films, TV, etc.)
– Internet access (web surfing, w/multimedia.)
• W-CDMA (Wideband CDMA) (Ericsson)
• CDMA2000 (Qualcomm)
• Other variations
– 2.5G: EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution),
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
– 4G
– 802.11, 802.16
Cable Television
• Community Antenna Television
• Spectrum Allocation
• Cable Modems
• ADSL versus Cable
2.7 Cable Television
• An early cable television system consisted of:
– A big antenna on top of a hill to pluck the television
signal out of the air
– An amplifier, called the headend, to strengthen it,
– A coaxial cable to deliver it to people’s houses.
Internet over Cable
• Cable television (HFC, Hybrid Fiber Coax)
– Optical fibers, fiber nodes
Internet over Cable
– Bandwidth
• The bandwidth of coax is much higher than that of
twisted pairs.