DASAR-DASAR

RADIOFARMASI

Lecturer:
Prof. Resmi Mustarichie MSc, Ph.D, Apt.
Course Materials:
1. Atomic Nuclei
2. Radioactivity
3. Nuclear Reactions
4. Production of Radionuclides
5. Separation of Radionuclides
6. Isotopic Exchange, Distribution of Miroconcentrations of
Radioisotopes between Two Phases, Adsorption of
Radioisotopes , Electrochemistry of Radioisotopes, and the
State of Radioisotopes in Ultrasmall Concentrations
7. Radiation Chemistry
8. Synthesis of Radiolabeled Compounds
9. Application of Radioisotopes in Studies of the Structure of
Chemical Compounds and the Mechanism of Chemical
Reactions, in Analytical Chemistry, and for Determination of
Physicochemical Constants
References

1. G. F. Friedlander, J. W. Kennedy, E. S. Macias, J. M. Miller, Nuclear

and Radiochemistry, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1981.
2. G. Choppin, J. Liljenzin, J. Rydberg, Radiochemistry and Nuclear
Chemistry, 3rd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2002.
3. A. N. Nesmeyanov, Radiochemistry, Mir Publishers, Moscow, 1974
 Radioactivity
• Much of our understanding of atomic structure
came from studies of radioactive elements.

• Radioactivity - The process by which atoms

spontaneously emit high energy particles or rays
from their nucleus.

• First observed by Henri Becquerel in 1896.

 Discovery of Radiation
• William Roentgen Nov, 1895 - X-RAYS
• Henri Becqueral, Feb 1896
Antoine Henri Becquerel
France (1852-1908)
Structure of the Atom
An atom is the smallest particle of an element and
has properties of the elemen
K L
Z/N
M
Bohr’s atomic theory:

An atom is composed of a nucleus at the center and

one or more electrons rotating around the nucleus
along diferent energy orbit.
The nucleus is primarily composed of protons and
neutrons collectively called nucleons
the number of electrons moving around the nucleus
equals the number of protons, balancing the electrical
charge of the nucleus.
 Structure of the Nucleus

Atomic nucleus: Berat proton = 1.6724 x 10-27 kg

proton nukleon 1.00727 amu
neutron
Berat neutron = 1.6747 x 10-27 kg
1.00866 amu
Number of electrons in the neutral atom = number of protons in the atomic
nucleus.
Z = Atomic number
Example: the stable nucleus of
= the number of protons in the
aluminum consists of 13 protons (Z)
nucleus
A = Mass number and 14 neutrons (N) Aluminum has A
= the number of nucleons or = 27 and Z = 13
the sum of protons and neutrons
=Z+N
Terminology
A nuclide is an atom characterized by the number of protons and neutrons
in its nucleus, either stable nuclides or unstable nuclides, designated by
the atomic number (Z) and the mass number (A):
A
ZX
52
Example:
25 Mn
The unstable nuclide or radioactive nuclide is often termed a radionuclide.

Nuclides of the same atomic number are called isotopes and exhibit the
same chemical propeties. The unstable isotope or radioactive isotope is
termed a radioisotope.
Examples of oxygen isotopes are:158O , 168O , 17
8O and 18
8O
Terminology
Nuclides having the same number of neutrons but different atomic numbers
are called isotones.
59 60 61 64
Examples:26 Fe , 27 Co 28 Ni
, and 29 Cu
, each having 33 neutrons

Nuclides with the same number of nucleons, i.e, the same mass number (A),
but a diferent number of protons and neutrons, are called isobars.
67 67 67 67
Misalnya: 29 Cu , 30 Zn, 31 Ga
and 32Ga each having mass number of 67

Nuclides having the same number of protons and neutrons but different in
energy states and spins are called isomers.
99m 99
43 Tc 43 Tc
Examples: and are isomers of the same nuclide.
Nucleus Model
Liquid Drop Model:
The nucleus is assumed to be spherical and composed of closely packed
nucleons.
Particle emission by nucleus resembles evaporation of molecules from a
liquid drop.
This model explains various phenomena, such as the nuclear density,
binding energy, energetics of particle emission by radioactive nuclei, and
fission of heavy nuclei.
Shell Model:
Nucleons are arranged in discrete energy shells similar to the electron shells of
the atom in the Bohr theory. Nuclei containing 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, or 126
protons or neutrons are very stable, and these nucleon number are called
magic numbers. The shell model explains various nuclear characteristics such
as the angular momentum, magnetic moment, and parity of the nucleous.
Stability of the Nucleus

More stable nuclei if they contain an even number of protons and neutrons
Less stable nuclei if they contain an odd number of protons or neutrons

The ratio of the number of neutrons to the number of protons:

N An approximate index of the stability of a nuclide
Z
= 1 in the stable nuclei with a low atomic number ,
12 16 14
such as 6 C , 8O and 7 N

Z>20, the ratio of N/Z increases with increasing aomic number of

127 208
the nucleus. Examples: N/Z = 1.40 for 53 I and 1.54 for 82Pb
 100

90

80

70

60

Z 50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

N
Nuclei with N/Z diferent from the stable nuclei nuclei are unstable and
decay by b-particle emission or electron capture.
Stability of the Nucleus
The classical electrostatic theory a nucleus should not hold as a single
entity because of the electrostatic repulsive forces among the protons in the
nucleus.

However, the stable existence of the nucleus has been explained by the
postulation of a binding force, referred to as the nuclear force, which is much
stronger than the electrostatic force and binds equally protons and neutrons
together in the nucleus.

The nuclear force exists only in the nucleus and has no influence outside
the nucleus.

The size of a nucleus is of the order of 10-13 cm and the nuclear force is short
range resulting in the very small size of the nucleus.
Stability of the Nucleus
The mass M of a nucleus is always less than the combined masses
of the nucleons A in the nucleus.

Mass Defect = M - A
This mass defect has been utilized as energy in binding all the nucleons
in the nucleus. This energy is called the binding energy of the
nucleus and need to be supplied to separate all nucleons completely from
each other.

The stability of a nuclide is governed by the structural arrangement and

binding energy of the nucleons in the nucleus.
Radioactive Decay
• emission and propagation) of energy through space
Radiation 
• can be particulate or electromagnetic

An unstable or radioactive nuclide decays by spontaneous fission,

or a-particle, b-particle or g-photon emission

Radioactive decay by particle emission or electron capture changes the

atomic number of the radionuclide, whereas decay by photon emission
does not.
Radioactive decay
Radionuclides may decay by any one or a combination of five
processes:

 a decay, b- decay, b+ decay, electron capture, or isomeric

transition.

In all decay processes, the energy, mass, and charge of

radionuclides must be conserved.
a Decay
It is usually happened in the heavy nuclei , higher than Pb, such as radon,
uranium, neptunium, dst.

The a particle is a helium nucleus containing two protons and two

4
neutrons bond together, 2He
In a decay, the atomic number of the parent nuclide is therefore reduced
by 2 and the masss nmber by 4:
235 231 4
U Th +
92 90 2He

An a transition may be followed by g-ray emisssion.

The a particles are monoenergetic, dan their range in matter is very
short (on the order of 10-6 cm).
b- Decay
This decay occurs when a nucleus is “neutron rich” (N/Z >> compared to
the stable nucleus).

In b- decay, a neutron (n) essentially decays into proton (p), and b-

particle along with antineutrino (-)

n p + b- + -
An antineutrino is an entity almost without mass and charge and is primaly
needed to conserve energy in the decay.

The b- particle is emitted with variable energy from zero up to the decay
energy. The decay energy is the difference in energy between the parent and
daughter nuclides..
b- Decay
An antineutrino carries away the difference in energy between the parent
and daughter nuclides.

The b- decay may be followed by g-ray emission After b- decay, the

atomic number of the daughter nuclide is one more than that of the
parent nuclide. Some example of b- decay are
131 131
53
I
54
Xe + b- + -
59 59
26
Fe
27
Co + b- + -
99 99m
42
Mo
43
Tc + b- + -
Bremsstrahlung Continuous X-rays result from deceleration
of b- rays or electrons in the Coulomb field of atomic nuclei. The
probability of producing bremsetrahlung increases with increasing
electron energy and increasing atomic number of medium.
Decay scheme of 131I
131
I
53 (8 days) b-

723 keV
1,6%
6,9% 637

90,4%
364

80

131
Xe (stable)
54
Positron or b+ Decay
Nuclei that are “neutron deficient” or “proton rich” will decay by emitting b+-
particle accompanied by the emission of a neutrino ()

i.e., have an N/Z ratio less than that of the stable nuclei

At the end of the path of b- -particles, positrons combine

with electrons and thus are annihilated giving rise to two
photons of 511 keV emitted in opposite directions. These
photons are referred to as annihilation radiations.

511 keV 511 keV

e+e-
Positron emission takes place when the energy difference between parent
and daughter nuclides is larger than 1,02 MeV
Positron or b+ Decay

In b+ decay, a proton transforms into a neutron by emitting a b+

particle and a neutrino as illustrated below:

p n + b+ + 

Since a b+ particle can be emitted with an energy between zero and decay
energy, the neutrino carries away the difference between decay energy and
b+ energy. Some examples of b+ decay are 18F (110 min)

18 18
F O + b+ + 
9 8 b+ 97%
64 64
29
Cu
28
Ni + b+ +  EC 3%
52 52
26
Fe
25
Mn + b+ +  18O (stable)
 Electron Capture (EC) x-ray

As an alternative to b+ decay
An electron is captured from the extranuclear
electron shells. Usually the K shell electrons
are captured because their proximity to the
nucleus; the process is then called K capture.

transforming a proton into a neutron and emitting a neutrino

p + e+ → n + ν
The vacancy created in the K shell after electron capture is filled by the transition
of electrons from an upper level (probably the L shell and possibly the M or N
shell). The difference in energies of the electron shells will appear as an x-ray
that is characteristic of the daughter nucleus.
The probability of electron capture increases with increasing atomic number,
because electron shells in these nuclei come closer to the nucleus
Electron Capture (EC)
For the electron capture to occur, the energy difference between the parent
and daughter nuclides is usually, but not necessarily, less than 1.02 MeV.
Nuclides having an energy difference greater than 1.02 MeV may also decay
by electron capture.
Several radionuclides used in nuclear medicine decay by EC:
51Cr, 57Co, 67Ga, 111In, 123I, 125I, and 201Tl

EC is a desirable decay mode for diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals because

no particular radiation produced , lowering the patient’s radiation adsorbed
dose. 51Cr (27.704 d)

The decay equation for 51Cr is EC1 (9%)

EC2 (91%)
g
51V (stable)