Chapter 9 Guided Electromagnetic Waves

Several wave guiding systems, Electromagnetic

waves in rectangular and circular waveguides
Coaxial line，Cavity resonator

1. TEM Wave, TE Wave, and TM Wave

2. Equations for Electromagnetic Waves in Rectangular
Waveguides
3. Characterization of Electromagnetic Waves in Rectangular
Waveguides
4. TE10 Wave in Rectangular Waveguides
5. Group Velocity
6. Circular Waveguides
7. Transmitted Power and Loss in Waveguides
8. Resonant Cavity
9. Coaxial Lines
 The electromagnetic waves to be transmitted along a
confined path are called guided electromagnetic waves,
and the systems to transmit the guided electromagnetic
waves are called the wave guiding systems.

Two-wire line, coaxial line, strip line, microstrip, and

metal waveguides are often used in practice.

we will discuss the metal waveguides and the coaxial

line only.
 Two-wire Coaxial line Rectangular Circular
line waveguide waveguide

Dielectric waveguide,
Strip line Microstrip line
Fiber optic
1. TEM Wave, TE Wave, and TM Wave

E E E

es es es
H H H

TEM wave TE wave TM wave

The wave guiding systems in which an electrostatic field can exist

must be able to transmit TEM wave.

From Maxwell’s equations we can prove that the metal waveguide

cannot transmit TEM wave.
The main properties of several wave guiding systems

EM
Systems Wave types Wave band
shielding
Two-wire line TEM wav Poor > 3m
Coaxial line TEM wave Good > 10cm
Strip line TEM wave Poor Centimeter
Microstrip line Quasi-TEM wave Poor Centimeter
Rectangular Centimeter
TE or TM wave Good
waveguide Millimeter
Circular Centimeter
TE or TM wave Good
waveguide Millimeter
Fiber optic TE or TM wave Poor Optical wave
 The general approach to study the wave guiding systems

Suppose the wave guiding system is infinitely long, and let it be

placed along the z-axis and the propagating direction be along the
positive z-direction. Then the electric and the magnetic field
intensities can be expressed as
E ( x , y , z )  E 0 ( x , y ) e  jk z z

H ( x, y , z )  H 0 ( x, y ) e  jk z z
where kz is the propagation constant in the z-direction, and they satisfy
the following vector Helmholtz equation:

 2 E  2 E  2 E
 2  2  2 k E 0
2

 x y z
 2
 H   H   H  k 2 H  0
2 2

 x 2 y 2 z 2
 The above equation includes six components, E x , E y , E z and
H x , H y , H z , in rectangular coordinate system, and they satisfy the
scalar Helmhotz equation.
Based on the boundary conditions of the wave guiding system
and by using the method of separation of variables, we can find
the solutions for these equations.
From Maxwell’s equations, we can find the relationships between
the x-component or the y-component and the z-component as

1  Ez H z  1  E z H z 
Ex  
2 
 jk  j  Hx  
2 
j  jk 
x y  y x 
z z
kc  kc 
1  Ez H z  1  E H z 
Ey  
2 
 jk  j  H y  2   j z  jk z 
y x 
z
kc  kc  x y 
Where kc2  k 2  k z2 . These relationships are called the representation
of the transverse components by the longitudinal components.
 We only need to solve the scalar Helmholtz equation for the
longitudinal components, and then from the relationships between the
transverse components and the longitudinal components all transverse
components can be derived.
In the same way, in cylindrical coordinates the z-component can
be expressed in terms of the r-component and –component as
1  E z  H z 
Er   
2 
jk  j 
r r  
z
kc 
1  k z Ez H z 
E  
2 
 j  j 
kc  r  r 

1   Ez H z 
Hr  
2 
j  jk 
kc  r  r 
z

1  E z k z H z 
H   
2 
j  j 
kc  r r  
2. Equations for Electromagnetic Waves in Rectangular
Waveguides
Select the rectangular coordinate system and let the broad side
be placed along the x-axis, the narrow side along the y-axis, and the
propagating direction be along the z-axis.

For TM waves, Hz = 0 , and

according to the method of
y
longitudinal fields, the component
Ez should first be solved, and from
b  ,
x which the other components can
a
z be derived.

The z-component of the electric field intensity can be written as

E z  E z 0 ( x , y ) e  jk z z
 It satisfies the following scalar Helmholtz equation, i.e.
 2 Ez  2 Ez
  k 2
Ez  0
x y
2 2 c

And the amplitude is found to satisfy the same scalar Helmholtz

equation, given by
 2 Ez 0  2 Ez 0
  kc2 Ez 0  0
x 2
y 2

In order to solve the above equation, the method of separation of

variables is used. Let
E z 0 ( x、y)  X ( x)Y ( y)

X  Y 
We obtain   kc2
X Y
where X" denotes the second derivative of X with respect to x, and Y"
denotes the second derivative of Y with respect to y.
 X  Y 
  kc2
X Y
The second term on the left side of the above equation is a function
of y only, while the right side is a constant. The only way the equation
can be satisfied is that both terms on the left side are constants.
X  Y 
Now let   k x2  k y2
X Y
where k x and k y are called the separation constants, and they can be
found by using the boundary conditions.

Obviously kc2  k x2  k y2
The two equations are second order ordinary differential equations,
and the general solutions, are respectively
X  C1 cos k x x  C 2 sin k x x Y  C 3 cos k y y  C 4 sin k y y

where all the constants C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 , and k x , k y , depend on the

boundary conditions.
 Since the component Ez is parallel to the walls, we have Ez = 0 at
the boundaries x = 0, a and y = 0, b . Using these results we find
mπ nπ
kx  , m  1,2,3, ky  , n  1,2,3, 
b b
And all the field components are
mπ nπ  jk z z
E z  E0 sin x sin ye
a b
k z E0  mπ   mπ   nπ 
Ex   j 2   cos x  sin  y e  jk z z
kc  a   a   b 
k z E0  nπ   mπ   nπ 
Ey   j 2   sin  x  cos y e  jk z z
kc  b   a   b 
E0  nπ   mπ   nπ 
Hx  j   sin x  cos y e  jk z z
kc2  b   a   b 
E0  mπ   mπ   nπ 
Hy  j   
cos x  sin  y e  jk z z
kc2  a   a   b 
 mπ nπ  jk z z
E z  E0 sin x sin ye
a b
k z E0  mπ   mπ   nπ 
Ex   j 2   cos x  sin  y e  jk z z
kc  a   a   b 
k z E0  nπ   mπ   nπ 
Ey   j 2   sin  x  cos y e  jk z z
kc  b   a   b 
E0  nπ   mπ   nπ 
Hx  j   sin x  cos y e  jk z z
kc2  b   a   b 
E0  mπ   mπ   nπ 
Hy  j   
cos x  sin  y e  jk z z
kc2  a   a   b 
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 Similarly, we can derive all the components of a TE wave in the
rectangular waveguide, as given by
 mπ   nπ 
H z  H 0 cos x  cos y e  jk z z
 a   b 
k z H 0  mπ   mπ   nπ   jk z z
Hx  j   sin  x  cos y e
kc2  a   a   b 
k z H 0  nπ   mπ   nπ   jk z z
Hy  j   cos x  sin  y e
kc2  b   a   b 
H 0  nπ   mπ   nπ   jk z z
Ex  j   cos x  sin  y e
kc2  b   a   b 
H 0  mπ   mπ   nπ   jk z z
Ey   j   sin  x  cos y e
kc2  a   a   b 
where m, n  0, 1, 2, , but both should not be zero at the same time.
TE wave has the multi-mode characteristics as the TM wave. The
lowest order mode of TE wave is the TE01 or TE10 wave.
 3. Characterization of Electromagnetic Waves in Rectangular
Waveguides

Since kc2  k 2  k z2, or k z2  k 2  kc2, if k  kc , then k z  0 . This means

that the propagation of the wave is cut off, and kc is called the cutoff
propagation constant.

2 2
 mπ   nπ 
kc2  k x2  k y2 k 
2
c   
 a   b 

From k  2πf  , we can find the cutoff frequency f c corresponding

to the cutoff propagation constant kc , as given by
2 2
kc 1 m n
fc      
2π  2   a   b 
 The propagation constant kz can be expressed as
  
2
f
k 1   c  ,
 f  f  fc
f 
2
  
k z   k 1   c  
 f    fc 
2

 jk    1, f  fc
  f 

if f  f c , k z is a real number, and the factor e  jk z z stands for the

wave propagating along the positive z-direction. 2
 f 
 kz  c  1
If f  f c , k z is an imaginary number, then e  jk z z  e  f 

which states that this time-varying electromagnetic field is not

transmitted, but is an evanescent field.
For a given mode and in a given size waveguide, f c is the lowest
frequency of the mode to be transmitted. In view of this, the waveguide
acts like a high-pass filter.
 From k  2π , we can find the cutoff wavelength c corresponding

the cutoff propagation constant kc as
2π 2
c  
kc 2
m n
2

   
 a  b
The cutoff frequency or the cutoff wavelength is related to the
dimensions of the waveguide a, b and the integers m, n . For a given
size of waveguide, different modes have different cutoff frequencies
and cutoff wavelengths. A mode of higher order has a higher cutoff
frequency, or a shorter cutoff wavelength.
The cutoff wavelength of the TE10
TE01 TE10
wave is 2a, and that of TE20 wave is a.
TE20
TM11 The left figure gives the distribution of
c the cutoff wavelength for a waveguide
0 a 2a
with a  2b .
 If   c , then the corresponding mode will be cut off. From the
figure we see that if   2a , all modes will be cut off.
If a    2a , then only TE10 wave
exists, while all other modes are cut

Cutoff area
TE01 TE10 off . If   a , then the other modes
TE20
will be supported.
TM11
Hence, if the operating wavelength
c
0 a 2a satisfies the inequality
a    2a
Then the transmission of a single mode is realized, and the TE10 wave is
the single mode to be transmitted.
The transmission of a single mode wave is necessary in practice
since it is helpful for coupling energy into or out of the waveguide.

TE10 wave is usually used, and it is called the dominant mode of

the rectangular waveguide.
 In practice, we usually take a  2b to realize the transmission of the
single mode TE10 in the frequency band a    2a .
To support the TE10 mode the sizes of the rectangular waveguide
should satisfy the following inequality
 
a b
2 2
The lower limit for the narrow side depends on the transmitted
power, the allowable attenuation, and the weight per unit length.
In practice, we usually take a  0.7 and b  (0.4 ~ 0.5)a or (0.1 ~ 0.2)a .
As the wavelength is increased, the sizes of the waveguide must be
increased proportionally to ensure the dominant mode is above cutoff.
If the frequency is very low, the wavelength will be very long so that it
may not be convenient for use.
Consequently, metal waveguides are used for microwave bands
above 3GHz.
 The phase velocity vp can be found from the phase constant as
 v v
vp    v
kz f 
2

2

1   c  1   
 f   c 
1
Where v  . If the inside of the waveguide is vacuum, then

1
v c
 0 0
Since the operating frequency f  fc and the operating wavelength
  c , we have vp  c for a vacuum waveguide. Hence, the phase velocity
does not represent the energy velocity in a waveguide.

The phase velocity depends on not only the sizes of the waveguide,
the modes, and the properties of the media within the waveguide, but
also the frequency. Hence, an electromagnetic wave will also experience
dispersion in a waveguide.
 Based on the relationship between the wavelength and the phase
constant, we find the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave in a
waveguide, g , as
2π  
g   
kz f 
2

2

1   c  1   
 f   c 
where  is the operating wavelength. The quantity g is called the guide
wavelength.
c   ，thus g   .
Due to f  f c ，
The ratio of the transverse electric to the transverse magnetic
field intensities as the waveguide impedance of the waveguide. For a
TM wave the waveguide impedance is
2 2
Ex Ey f   
Z TM   Z TM  Z 1   c   Z 1    Z
Hy Hx  f   c  
 In the same way, we find the waveguide impedance of a TE
wave as Z Z
Z TE  
2 2
f  
1   c  1   
 f   c 
If f  f c ,   c , then Z TM and Z TE are both imaginary numbers.
This means that the transverse electric field and the transverse
π
magnetic field have a phase difference of . Hence, there is no
2
energy flow in the z-direction, and it indicates that the propagation
of the electromagnetic wave is cut off.

Example. The inside of a rectangular metal waveguide is

vacuum, and the cross-section is 25mm10mm. What modes can be
transmitted if an electromagnetic wave of frequency f  10 4 MHz enters
the waveguide? Will the modes be changed if the waveguide is filled
with a perfect dielectric of relative permittivity  r  4 ?
 Solution: Due to the inside is vacuum, the operating wavelength is
c
   30 mm
f
2 50
and the cutoff wavelength is c  
2
m n
2
m 2  6.25n 2
   
 a  b
Then the cutoff wavelength of TE10 wave is c  50mm , that of TE20
wave is c  25mm , and that of TE01 wave is λc  20mm . The cutoff
wavelength of the higher modes will be even shorter. In view of this,
only TE10 wave can be transmitted in this waveguide.
If the waveguide is filled with a perfect dielectric of  r  4 , then
the operating wavelength is

  15mm
r
Hence, TE10 and TE20 waves can be transmitted, and some other modes
TE01，TE30，TE11，TM11，TE21，TM21 can exist.
4. TE10 Wave in Rectangular Waveguides

Let m  1, n  0 , we find
H 0  π   π   jk z
Ey   j   sin  x e z
kc2 a a 
k z H 0  π   π   jk z z
Hx  j 2   sin  x e
kc  a   a 
π 
H z  H 0 cos x e  jk z z
a 
And H y  E x  E z  0 . The corresponding instantaneous values are

2H 0  π   π  π
E y (r , t )     sin x  sin( t  k z z  )
a a 
2
kc 2
2k z H 0  π   π  π
H x (r , t )    sin x  sin( t  k z z  )
a a 
2
kc 2
π 
H z (r , t )  2 H 0 cos x  sin( t  k z z )
a 
 y Ey
The above equations are simplified as Hz
π  π
E y (r , t )   A sin  x  sin( t  k z z  ) z
a  2
π  π
H x (r , t )  B sin  x  sin( t  k z z  ) Hx
a  2
g
π 
H z (r , t )  C cos x  sin( t  k z z )
a 
y Hz Hx
Where A, B, C are positive real numbers.
The right figure gives the distributions x
of the TE10 wave along the z-direction and
Ey
x-direction at t = 0 . a
A standing wave is found in the x -direction, while a traveling
wave is seen in the z -direction.
The amplitude of Hz follows a cosine function, while the amplitudes
of Hx and Ez depend on x with the sine function. But all of them are
independent of the variable y.
 The electric and magnetic field lines and the currents of TE10 wave .

z y Electric field lines

 


 a
  Magnetic field lines
 

x
g
x
z
b

y y

The electric currents

on the inner walls
z
x
 The modes with higher orders

TE10 TE11

TE20 TE21

TM11 TM21

Electric field lines

Magnetic field lines
 Let m = 1, n = 0, we find the cutoff wavelength of TE10 mode as
c  2a
It means that the cutoff wavelength of the TE10 wave is independent
of the narrow side.

The phase velocity and the guide wavelength can be found as

v 
vp  g 
     
2 2

1   1  
 2a   2a 
To visualize the physical meaning of the phase velocity, the
energy velocity, as well as the guide wavelength for the TE10 wave,
the expression of electric field intensity Ey is rewritten as
π
j x
π   π  1 j aπ x - j aπ x 
E y  E0 (e e
j x
) e  jk z z  sin  x   (e  e ) 
  a  2j 
a a

 
 Furthermore, we have
  
Ey  E0e  jk ( x cos  z sin )
 E0e  jk (  x cos  z sin )  cos    
 2a c 
which states that a TE10 wave can be considered as the resultant wave
comprising two uniform plane waves with the same propagation
constant k .
The propagating directions of the
z two plane waves are laid on the xz-
plane. They are parallel to the broad
a   ② ①
wall, and the two plane waves are
combined into a plane wave taking a
x zigzag path between the two narrow
walls.
If   c , then   0 . The plane wave will be reflected vertically
between two narrow walls. Hence it cannot propagate in the z-direction
and is cut off.
 when the wave loops of the two plane waves meet, a wave loop of
the resultant wave is formed. A wave node of the resultant wave is
formed when the wave nodes of the two plane waves meet.

The bold lines denote the wave loops

z of plane wave ①, and the dashed lines
B ② A denote that of plane wave ②.
a  D ①
C Obviously, the length of the line AB
is equal to the guide wavelength , and
x the length of the line AC is equal to the
operating wavelength .
If the inside of the waveguide is vacuum, then the length of the
line AC is equal to the wavelength in vacuum. From the figure, we

find
  g 
g     
2
sin  1  cos 2  1   
 c 
 The space phase of plane wave ① is changed by 2 from A to C,
while that of the resultant wave is changed by 2 over the distance AB.
In view of this, the phase velocity of the resultant wave is greater than
that of the uniform plane wave v,
z v v
B ② A vp  vp 
a  D ① sin  
2

1   
 c 
C
x
From the point of the view of energy, when the energy carried
by plane wave ① arrives at C from A, the movement in z-direction is
just over the distance AD. Hence, the energy velocity is less than the
energy velocity of the uniform plane wave v. From the figure, we find
the energy velocity as 2

ve  v sin   v  vp ve  v 1   
 c 
 Example. The broad side of a rectangular waveguide filled with air
satisfies the condition   a  2 , and the operating frequency is 3GHz. If
the operating frequency is required to be higher than the cutoff
frequency of the TE10 wave by 20% and less than the cutoff frequency of
the TE01 by 20%. Find: (a) The sizes for a and b. (b) The operating
wavelength, the phase velocity, the guide wavelength, and the wave
impedance for the designed waveguide.
Solution: (a) The cutoff wavelength of the TE10 wave is c  2a , and
c c
the cutoff frequency is f c   . The cutoff wavelength of TE01 wave
c 2a c
is c  2b , and the cutoff frequency is f c  . According to the given
2b
condition, we have
c c
3  10 9   1.2 3 109   0.8
2a 2b
We find a  0.06m , b  0.04m . Take a  0.06m , b  0.04m.
(b) The operating wavelength, the phase velocity, the guide
wavelength, and the wave impedance:
c
  0.1m
f
c
vp   5.42 103 m/s
 
2

1  
 2a 

g   0.182m
  
2

1  
 2a 

Z
Z TE 1 0   682Ω
  
2

1  
 2a 
5. Group Velocity
When the phase velocity is frequency dependent, a single phase
velocity alone cannot account for the speed at which a wave consisting
of multiple frequency components propagates.
As an example, we consider an amplitude-modulated wave to
illustrate the concept of the group velocity.
Suppose an electromagnetic wave propagating in the z-direction
has two components with frequencies close to each other as given by
 A1 ( z, t )  A0 cos(1t  k1 z )

 A2 ( z, t )  A0 cos( 2 t  k 2 z )
with the resultant signal
A  A1  A2  2 A0 cos(Δ t  Δkz) cos(0t  k0 z )
 1  1
 0 2 (1  2 )
   0 2 (k1  k 2 )
k 
where  
Δ  1 (   ) Δk  1 (k  k )
 2
 1  0 2  1
 A  A1  A2  2 A0 cos(Δ t  Δkz) cos(0t  k0 z )
Since  1 ~  2 , and Δ  0 . Therefore, in a very short time interval,
the first cosine function show little change, but the second cosine function
has large variations. So  0represents the carrier frequency while Δ is the
frequency of the envelope or the modulating frequency.

This is an amplitude-modulated signal with a slower variation in the

amplitude.
If the medium is non-dispersive, the envelope of the amplitude is
moving together with the carrier, both maintaining the sinusoidal
behavior in the movement. Therefore, by the locus of a stationary point
on the envelope, we can find the velocity of the envelope, and this
velocity is called the group velocity, denoted as vg .
dz Δ
Let Δt  Δkz  constant , we find vg  
dt Δk
 For non-dispersive media, the relationship between k and  is
linear, and Δ  d . We obtain
Δk dk
d
vg 
dk
Let 0t  k0 z  constant , and we find the phase velocity of the
carrier as 0
vp 
k0
Since k    in non-dispersive media, we find the group
velocity as
1
d  dk  1  vp
vg    
dk  d  
In non-dispersive media, the group velocity is equal to the phase
velocity.
 For dispersive media, the relationship between k and  is non-linear.
In this case, for a given operating frequency  0 , k (ω) can be expanded
by Taylor series around  0 as
 dk  1  d 2k 
k ( )  k 0    (   0 )   2  (  0 ) 2  
 d 0 2  d 
0

For a narrow band signal, take only the first two terms as
approximation, so that
 dk 
k ( )  k 0    (   0 )
 d  0
1
Δ d  dk   d 
Consider vg   , we have vg     
Δk dk  d 0  dk 0

With a nonlinear relation between the propagation constant k

and  the frequency for a dispersive medium, the phase velocity is
frequency dependent and it is not the same as the group velocity.
 Carrier

Envelope
Carrier

It gives the waveforms of the above narrow band signal at three

different moments for the case of vp  2vg . P  is a stationary point on the
envelope, and P is that for the carrier. When the displacement of the
point P is d, the point P  is moved only by d , (d   d ) because the velocity
of the envelope is less.

The actual signal waveform will be modified as it propagates.

 dk d  ω  1 ω dvp 1  ω dvp 
Consider    2  1 , we find
  
dω dω  vp  vp vp dω vp  vp dω  
vp
vg 
 dv p
1
v p d
For the narrow band signal, the above equation becomes
vp
vg 
  dv 
1   p 
vp  d 
0
dvp
If the phase velocity vp is independent of frequency,  0 , then
d
vg  v p
dvp
If  0 , then vg  vp , and the dispersion is called normal dispersion.
d
dvp
If  0 , then vg  vp , and it is called abnormal dispersion.
d
 dv
For a rectangular waveguide, p  0 , it is normal dispersive
d
and the group velocity is
2 2
f  
vg  v 1   c   v 1     ve
 f   c 
The group velocity is equal to the energy velocity in the
rectangular waveguide, which is the same behavior for all normal
dispersive media.

The phase velocity vp and the group velocity vg in a waveguide

satisfy the following equation
vp vg  v 2
When an electromagnetic wave is propagating in a conductive
medium, abnormal dispersion is observed. In this case, the group
velocity is not equal to the energy velocity, and the above equation
is not valid for this case.
6. Circular Waveguides
The inner radius a is the only dimension to be specified. Select
the cylindrical coordinate system, and let the z-axis be the axis of
the cylinder.
Similar to the rectangular wave-
guide, the longitudinal components Ez
y or Hz is first obtained, from which the
a
transverse components Er , E , Hr , H
 , x can be derived.

z
The field intensities in the
waveguide can be written as

E (r ,  , z )  E0 (r ,  )e  jk z z H (r ,  , z )  H 0 (r ,  )e  jk z z
The corresponding longitudinal components are, respectively
E z (r ,  , z )  E z 0 (r ,  )e  jk z z H z (r ,  , z )  H z 0 (r ,  )e  jk z z
 For a TM wave, Hz = 0 . In a source-free region, Ez satisfies the
scalar Helmholtz equation given by

 2 Ez  k 2 Ez  0
Expanding this equation in cylindrical coordinate system, we have

 2 Ez 0 1 E20 1  2 Ez 0
   k 2
Ez 0  0
r r r r 
2 2 2 c

Using the method of separation of variables is used, and let

E z 0 (r,  )  R(r ) ( )
Substituting it into the above equation gives
r 2 R rR  
  kc r  
2 2

R R 
where R  and R  are the second and the first derivatives of the function
R with respect to r, respectively,   and is the second derivative of the
function  with respect to  .
 Using the same derivation as before，we obtain the equation
for the function  as
   m 2  0
The general solution is
  A1 cos m  A2 sin m
Since the period of variation of the field with the angle is 2 .
Hence m must be integers so that
m  0,  1,  2
The circular waveguide is symmetrical with respect to the z-
axis; thus the plane   0 can be chosen arbitrarily. In this way, we
can always select the plane properly so that the first term cos m
or the second term sin m vanishes.
Therefore, the solution of  can be expressed as
cos m
  A
sin m
 d2R dR
We find r2
2
 r  ( k 2 2
c r  m 2
)R  0
dr dr
Let kc r  x , then the above equation becomes the standard Bessel
equation d2R dR
x2
2
 x  ( x 2
 m 2
)R  0
dx dx
The general solution is R  BJ m ( x)  CN m ( x)
where J m ( x) is the first kind of Bessel function of order m, and N m ( x) is
the second kind of Bessel function of order m. If r  0 , x  0 , then
N m (0)   . But the field should be finite in the waveguide. Hence the
constant C  0 . The solution should then be
R  BJ m (kc r )
Consider all results above, we find the general solution of Ez as
cos m  jk z z
E z  E0 J m (kc r ) e
sin m
And the transverse components are
k z E0 cos m  jk z z
Er   j Jm (kc r ) e
kc sin m
k z mE0 sin m  jk z z
E  j J ( k c 
r ) e
 cos m
2 m
kc r
mE0  sin m  jk z z
Hr  j J ( k c 
r ) e
cos m
2 m
kc r
E0 cos m  jk z z
H   j Jm (kc r ) e
kc sin m
where Jm (kc r ) is the first derivative of Bessel function J m (kc r ) . The
constant kc depends on the boundary condition.
The components Ez and E are tangential to the inner wall of the
circular waveguide; hence, E z  E  0 at r  a .
2
 P 
We find kc2   mn 
 a 
Pmn is the n -th root of the first kind of Bessel function of order m.
 The values of Pmn

m n 1 2 3 4
0 2.405 5.520 8.654 11.79
1 3.832 7.016 10.17 13.32
2 5.136 8.417 11.62 14.80

A pair of m and n corresponds to a Pmn , and that corresponds to a

kind of field distribution or a mode. Hence, the electromagnetic waves
have multiple modes in a circular waveguide also.
For the TE wave, Ez = 0. We can use the same approach to find
the component Hz first, and then the other transverse components
can be determined.
 cos m  jk z z
TE wave: H z  H 0 J m (kc r ) e
sin m
kH cos m  jk z z
H r   j z 0 Jm (kc r ) e
kc sin m
k z mH 0 sin m  jk z z
H   j 2 J m (kc r ) e
kc r  cos m
mH 0 sin m  jk z z
Er  j J m (kc r ) e
kc2 r  cos m
H 0 cos m  jk z z
E  j Jm (kc r ) e
kc sin m
.2
 
 Pmn
Based on the boundary conditions, we find 
kc  
2

 a 
 is the root of the first derivative of Bessel function.
Where Pmn
 
The values of Pmn

n 1 2 3 4
m
0 3.832 7.016 10.17 13.32

1 1.841 5.332 8.526 11.71

2 3.054 6.705 9.965 13.17

As with the rectangular waveguide, if k  kc , then the propagation

constant k z  0 , meaning that the wave is cut off, so that propagation
ceases.
2π
From kc  2πf c  
c
Pmn 2π a
For TM wave, we have fc  ; c 
2π a  Pmn

Pmn 2π a
For TE wave, we have fc  ; c 
2π a  
Pmn
 The following figure gives the cutoff wavelength of several modes
in a circular waveguide.
The TE11 wave has the longest
TE11
cutoff wavelength, and the next one

Cutoff area
TM01
TE21 is the TM01 wave.
TE01
The cutoff wavelengths of the
0 a 2a 3a 4a c TE11 and TM01 waves, respectively, as

TE 11 : c  3.41a, TM 01 : c  2.62a
If the operating wavelength  satisfies the following inequality
2.62a    3.41a
The transmission of a single mode (TE11 wave) can be realized,
and the TE11 wave is the dominant mode for the circular waveguide.
If the operating wavelength  is given, to realize the transmis-
sion of only the TE11 wave, the radius a must satisfy the following
inequality:  
a
3.41 2.62
 From the cutoff frequencies or the cutoff wavelengths, the phase
velocity, the group velocity, the guide wavelength and the wave
impedance of each mode can be found using the same equations as
those for the rectangular waveguide.


 
TE11 
 



 Electric field lines


 
TE01 


  Magnetic field lines




TM01



 Example. A circular waveguide of radius a = 5mm is filled with a
perfect dielectric of relative permittivity r = 9 . If it is to be operated
in the dominant TE11 mode, find the permissible frequency range.

Solution: To operate on the mode TE11, the operating wavelength

must satisfy the following inequality

2.62a    3.41a

Hence max  3.41 5mm  17.1mm min  2.62  5mm  13.1mm

The corresponding range of the operating frequency is
v 1
f max    7634MHz
 min  min  0
v 1
f min    5848MHz
max max  0
7. Transmitted Power and Loss in Waveguides
The longitudinal component of the complex energy flow density
vector is given by the cross product of the transverse components of
the electric and magnetic fields. The integration of the real part over
the cross-sectional area of the waveguide gives the transmitted power.
Take the TE10 wave as an example, we find the transmitted power
as abE 02
P
2Z TE
Where E 0 is the amplitude of the electric field in the middle of the
broad side
If the dielectric strength of the filling dielectric is Eb , then the
maximum transmitted power of the rectangular waveguide is
abEb2
Pb 
4Z TE
In practice, the transmitted power is limited as P   1 ~ 1  Pb for
3 5
safety purpose.
 The two major mechanisms for energy loss are imperfect dielectric
and finite conductivity of the waveguide walls.
The effect of the dielectric can be accounted for by introducing the
equivalent permittivity to replace the original one, i.e.

e    j

A vigorous analysis of the waveguide walls is very complicated.
An approximation that retains the magnetic field that would have
existed if the walls were perfectly conducting may be employed.

If we assume the attenuation constant is k  , then the amplitude

of the electric field intensity propagating along the positive z-
direction has the form
E  E0 e  k z
The transmitted power can be expressed as P  P0 e 2 k z
 P  P0 e 2 k z
Take the derivative of the above equation with respect to z, we
find the power attenuation per unit length as
P
  2k P
z
Obviously, that is the power loss per unit length, so that Pl1  2k P
Hence, the attenuation constant k is obtained as k   Pl1
2P
To calculate the loss of the walls, we consider a piece of conductor
making up the broad side wall, with unit width and length and a
thickness equal to d . The current in the conductor is flowing
y in the z-direction. The resistance of the piece
1 1 of conductor is given by
d l 1 πf
 RS   
 1 S d 
z  where  is the conductivity of the wall.
x
RS is called the surface resistivity.
 The surface resistivities of three types of metal

Metals Silver Copper Aluminum

RS 2.52  10 7 f 2.61  10 7 f 3.26  10 7 f

The surface current density is the current per unit width. Hence
the power loss per unit length and width of the waveguide wall PlS is

PlS  J S2 R S
where the surface current J S  en  H S , and H S is the magnetic field
intensity on the surface of the wall.

Taking the integration of PlS over the inner wall for a section of the
waveguide of unit length, the power loss per unit length of the wall Pl1
can be obtained.
 For a given size of rectangular
waveguide, the loss of the TE10 wave
is minimum. For a given width, the
TM1
smaller is the narrow wall, the larger
1
will be the attenuation constant.

The loss of the TE01 wave in a circular

waveguide is minimum in the higher
r
frequency range. 。
The cutoff wavelength of the TE01 wave
is not the largest. In order to realize the
transmission of the single mode TE01, the
modes TM01, TE21 and TE11 have to be
suppressed.
 For the same cross-section, the perimeter of a rectangle is larger
than that of a circle, and the loss in a circular waveguide is less than
that of the rectangular waveguide.

However, when a TE11 wave is propagating in a circular waveguide,

the fields could be rotated.

An elliptical waveguide
does not result in the rotation
of the fields, and the loss is
E
less also.

In addition, in order to reduce the wall losses, the inner surface

should be polished, and plated with silver or gold. To prevent
oxidation of the surface, the waveguide may be filed with inert gas.
 Example. Calculate the attenuation caused by finite conductivity of
the wall when a TE10 wave is propagating in a rectangular waveguide.

Solution: When a TE10 wave is

propagating in a rectangular waveguide,
there are x-component and z-component
of the surface currents on the broad sides,
y
while there is only the y-component on the
narrow sides.
Therefore, the power loss per unit length
of the broad wall is
z

Pla  2  J Sz RS dx   J Sx2 RS dx 
a a
2
x
 0 0 

Where J Sz  e y  H x , J Sx  e y  H z .
 The power loss per unit length of the narrow wall is
b
Plb  2 J S y RS dy
2
0
Where J Sy  e x  H z .

Then the total power loss per unit length is

Pl1  Pla  Plb

Based on the transmitted power P and the total power loss

per unit length Pl1 , we find the attenuation constant as

P RS  1 2   2 
k   l1      
2P      b a  2a  
2

1  
  2a 
8. Resonant Cavity
In microwave band, the lumped LC tank circuits cannot be used,
we usually employ a transmission line to construct a resonant device,
and it is called cavity resonator.
with the increase of the resonant frequency the inductance and
the capacitance must be reduced. However, for small L and C,
distributed effects cannot be neglected. The inductance of the lead
wires of capacitors, the distributed capacitances among the coils or
the devices have to be considered. This means that a pure capacitor
or a pure inductor is very difficult to be made at microwave
frequencies.
Furthermore, with the increase in frequency, the radiation effect
of the circuits becomes significant, and the power loss in the dielectric
of the capacitor is more severe as well. All of these will result in the
decrease of the quality factor Q of the lumped tank circuit.
 When a metal plate is placed at the end of a waveguide, the electro-
magnetic wave will be completely reflected, leading to a standing wave.

For a rectangular waveguide operating in the dominant mode,

the closed end corresponds to a wave node for the electric field since
it is tangential to the metal plate. Another wave node for the electric
λ
field appears at a distance g from the closed end. If one more
2
metal plate is placed there, the boundary condition is still satisfied,

In this way, there is a standing

y wave in the cavity formed by the
d
waveguide walls and the end plates.
b Based on the field intensity and the
boundary condition, we find the
z
a g /2
equations for the standing waves in
x the cavity as follows:
 π  π 
H z  H 0 (e  jk z z
 e ) cos x 
jk z z
H z  2 jH 0 sin( k z z ) cos x 
a  a 
k aH π  k aH π 
H x  j z 0 (e  jk z z  e jk z z ) sin  x  H x  2 j z 0 cos( k z z ) sin  x 
π a  π a 
aH 0 jk z z  jk z z π  2aH 0 π 
Ey   j (e  e ) sin  x  Ey   sin( k z z ) sin  x 
π a  π a 
There are standing waves of the electric and the magnetic fields
along both the x-direction and the z-direction, but they are out of the
time phase by π . When the electric energy is maximum, the magnetic
2
energy is zero. Conversely, when the magnetic energy is maximum,
the electric energy is zero.

The electromagnetic energy is exchanged between the electric field

and the magnetic field, and this phenomenon is called resonance. So
the cavity is called a resonant cavity, and it is used as a resonant
device in microwave circuits.
 For a given cavity, resonance occurs only at certain frequencies.
The particular frequency is called resonant frequency, and the
corresponding wavelength is called the resonant wavelength.
 g 
If the length of the cavity is d  l  , l  1,2,3,
 2
Then the boundary condition can be satisfied, and the resonance will
happen. Hence, the resonant frequency or wavelength of a resonant
cavity is multi-valued, and it is called multiple resonance.
since the guide wavelength is related to the mode, different modes
have different resonant frequencies.
2 2

Consider k z2  k 2       , when d  l g , k z d  lπ , k z  lπ ,
m π n π
 a   b  2 d
and we find
2 2 2
 mπ   nπ   lπ 
k      
 a   b  d
 2π
From k   2πf  , we find

2
 mnl 
2 2 2
m n  l 
     
 a  b d 
2 2 2
1 m n  l 
f mnl       
2   a  b d 
The resonant wavelengths and frequencies depend on not only the
sizes of the cavity, but also the mode.
A set of mnl corresponds to a mode. For instance, TE101 stands for
that a rectangular waveguide cavity operating on a TE10 wave, and
the length of the cavity is half of the guide wavelength.
In order to properly design the coupling and the tuning devices of
the cavity, knowledge about the distribution of the fields in the cavity
is required.
 The figure gives the distribution of the fields in a rectangular cavity
operating at the TE101 mode.
d As with other resonant devices,
z y
a real cavity always has some loss.
a
In order to assess the loss of a
resonant device, the quality
x x
z factor Q is usually employed, and
b its definition is
Electric field lines  0W
Q
y Magnetic field lines Pl
where 0 is the resonant angular frequency, W is the total energy,
Pl is the power loss in the cavity.
The maximum value of the energy density of the electric field in
the cavity is
a 3bd02  2 | H 0 |2
W
2π 2
 In order to calculate the power loss of the cavity wall, the same
method for waveguide analysis may be applied. We find the power
loss of a rectangular cavity operating with the TE101 mode as
2a 3b  a 3 d  ad 3  2d 3b
Pl  2 R S | H 0 | 2

d2
and the Q value is
03  2a 3bd 3
Q 2
4π RS (2a 3b  a 3d  ad 3  2d 3b)
The resonant angle frequency for the TE101 mode is
2 2
π 1 1
101  2πf101     
 a d 
Therefore, the Q value for the TE101 mode can be expressed as

πZb (a 2  d 2 )3
Q101 
4 RS (2a 3b  a 3d  ad 3  2d 3b)
where Z   .

 Since the circular waveguide has less loss, the Q value of the
cylindrical cavity is higher, and it is more popular than the rectangular
cavity.
The method for calculating the resonant frequency and the Q value
of a cylindrical cavity is the same as that above.
2
 lπa 
2 2 P  2

TM wave: f TM  1  Pmn   lπ  d  d 
mn
    QTM 
2π   a  d   2a 
2 π1  
 d 
   lπ 
2 2
TE wave: f TE 
1  Pmn
   
2π   a  d

  m 2   2 3

 ) 2  
lπa 
1     ( Pmn  
d   Pmn       
QTE  
  2 a  l πa 
2
 2 a  mlπa 
2

 )  
2π ( Pmn 2
  1    
 d  d   d  Pmnd 

 TE01l modes have higher Q
values, and the maximum
Q value of the TE011 mode
occurs around d  2a.
If  = 3cm, then Q value
will be 104~4104. 。

The approach to increase

the Q value is the same as
that of decreasing the loss of
waveguide wall.

In addition, the volume of the cavity should be as larger as possible

to increase the stored energy, while the area of the walls should be as
small as possible to decrease the loss.
 Example. Show that for any mode the resonant wavelength r of
the cavity can be expressed as
c
r  l  1,2,3, 
 l 
2

1  c 
 2d 
where c is the cutoff wavelength, and d is the length of the cavity.

Solution: Consider k z2  k 2  kc2

g lπ
If the length d  l , then k z d  lπand k z  . Resonance will occur.
2 d
2π
And due to k  2π , k c  , we find
r c
2 2
 π   2π   2π 
2 2
 l  1 1
 l           2 2
 d   r   c   2d  λr λc

Rewriting the equation gives the general formula.

9. Coaxial Lines
A coaxial line is shown in the figure, with an inner radius a and
an outer radius b. The electromagnetic wave propagates in the
region between the two conductors, which may be filled with air or
a dielectric.
The coaxial line is a good transmission
y line in microwave band. It possesses the
electromagnetic shielding function as the
b waveguides, but it has a wider frequency
x
range of operation.
z a
The coaxial line is a typical TEM
wave transmission line a coaxial line,
and the electric field lines are along
with the radial direction , while the
Electric field lines
magnetic field lines are a set of circles.
Magnetic field lines
 A coaxial line can also be considered as a circular waveguide that
supports TE and TM waves, besides the TEM wave. However, if we
properly design the dimensions according to the operating frequency,
these non-TEM waves can be restrain .
The method for analyzing non-TEM waves in a coaxial line is similar
to that for a circular waveguide. However, the coaxial line has an internal
conductor, the range of the variable r is a  r  b , and r  0. Hence, the
second kind of Bessel function with the singularity at r = 0 should be the
solution of Bessel equation as well, i.e.
R  BJ m ( x)  CN m ( x)
TE11
TM01 For TM and TE waves，based on
TE10 the boundary conditions the cutoff
propagation constant are found first,
(b - a) (a + b) c
0 then the cutoff wavelengths can be
obtained.
 TE11 The TE11 wave has the longest cutoff
wavelength, and it is π(a  b) .

TEM wave
TM01
TE10 To restrain the non-TEM wave, the
operating wavelength  must satisfy the
(b - a) (a + b) c following inequality
0
  π ( a  b)
In other words, the dimensions of the coaxial line should satisfy
the following inequality  
ab  
π 3
Hence, in order to eliminate the higher order modes in a coaxial
line, the dimensions have to be decreased as the frequency increases.
But small sizes will result in the increase of loss and the restriction of
the transmitted power. For this reason, the coaxial line is usually used
for the frequencies below 3GHz.
However, the operating frequency has no lower limit, and the coaxial
line can also be used to construct a cavity.