Control System

Components and Basic

Control Actions
ASHISH RANJAN (BE/15269/15)
ROBIN SINGH (BE/15243/15)
 CONTENTS
Sensors
Encoders
Potentiometer
Tachometer
Synchros
Op-amps
Basic control actions
 Sensors
These are low power transducers which produce output signal as a
measure of the controlled variable.
 A sensor is also defined as a device that converts a physical stimulus
into a readable output.
The output signal of the sensor is invariably in electrical form;
analog or digital.
Sensors are used for a variety of measurements like position,
velocity, acceleration, pressure, temperature etc.
 ENCODERS
Encoders are frequently used in control systems to convert linear or
rotary displacement into digital code or pulse signals, encoders are
of two types:
 Absolute encoders: Their output is a digitally encoded signal
with distinct digital code, indicative of each least significant
increment of resolution.
 Incremental encoders: Their output is a pulse for each
increment of resolution but these make no distinction between
increments.
 INCREMENTAL ENCODER
An incremental encoder has four parts:
1. A light source(LED)
2. A rotary (or translatory)
3. A stationary mask
4. A sensor (photodiode, photovoltaic cell, phototransistor)
Construction
The disc has alternate opaque and transparent sectors of equal width
which are etched by means of photographic process on to a plastic disc.
Functioning
As the disc rotates during half of the increment cycle the
transparent sectors of rotating and stationary discs come in
alignment permitting the light from LED to reach the sensor thereby
generating an electric pulse.
The waveform of sensor output of an encoder is generally
triangular depending upon the resolution required.
Square waveform are from it by means of linear op-amp and
comparator.
 Potentiometer
These are simple reliable devices for measuring mechanical displacement:
translatory or angular.
It is a simple voltage divider with three terminals – two fixed terminals and third
a movable terminal attached to a jockey
The total resistance of the potentiometer is spread out uniformly,
• linearly for translatory measurement
•helical form for angular measurement
 Potentiometer
If a fixed voltage is applied at fixed terminals, it is observed that
voltage output at movable terminal is proportional to displacement.
The above relationship is effected by load resistance which is
generally an amplifier, to which potentiometer output is connected.
Potentiometer with load
𝑅𝑝 = total potentiometer resistance
𝑥𝑡 = total displacement of the potential over which 𝑅𝑝 is spread out
𝑥𝑖 = displacement of the jockey from the ground terminal G
𝑅𝐿 = load resistance
𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 = reference voltage
𝑉° = output voltage (𝑉𝑀𝐺 )
As the resistance is spread out uniformly
𝑅𝑖 = (𝑥𝑖 /𝑥𝑡 ) 𝑅𝑝
1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅𝑖 /𝑅𝐿 = 1 𝑥𝑖 1
+(
𝑅𝐿 𝑥𝑡 𝑅𝑝
)×
Then by voltage divider rule
𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑉° = 𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹
𝑅𝑒𝑞 +(𝑅𝑝 −𝑅𝑖 )
Substituting values and assuming 𝑅𝐿 = (no load)
𝑥𝑖
𝑉° = 𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 ( ); a linear relationship
𝑥𝑡

Potentiometer classification
1. wire round potentiometers: These are made of resistance wire wound on an
insulating former. These could be
• Linear(translatory)- available in shaft displacement of 7.5,10,15cm
• Rotary- single turn(340degreee), three turn(1080), five turn(1800) and ten
turn(3600)
2. Non-wire wound potentiometers: these are divided into three groups
• Carbon composition
• Conductive plastic
• Ceramic potentiometer
 Tachometer
A tachometer is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a
shaft or disk, as in a motor or other machine. The device usually
displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue
dial, but digital displays are increasingly common. It is of two types:
DC Tachogenerator –
A dc tachogenerator is used to convert a
rotational speed into a proportional

dc voltage .
 It uses a permanent magnet for producing magnetic
field. It is coupled to the shaft of which speed is to
be measured.
 The PM produces constant magnetic flux due to
which induced voltage at the terminals of armature
depends upon its speed.
 The polarity depends upon direction of rotation.
∴𝜀 ∝𝜔
or 𝜀 = 𝐾𝑡𝑔 𝜔
where 𝐾𝑡𝑔 is a tachogenerator constant expressed in
V/(rad/sec).
AC Tachogenerator
An a.c. tachogenerator is used to convert a rotational speed into a proportional
a.c. voltage.
 It works on the principal of induction generator.
The tachogenerator is coupled to a shaft, of which speed is to be measured.
The reference winding is supplied by a reference voltage and the output voltage
𝜀 is induced across the output winding.
The amplitude (or the r.m.s value) and the phase of the output
voltage depends on the direction of rotation. The output voltage
𝜀 is thus related to the shaft speed as follows:
𝜀∝𝜔
Or, 𝜀 = 𝐾𝑡𝑔 𝜔
where 𝐾𝑡𝑔 is a constant expressed in V/(rad/sec). The Laplace transform of the
above equation is,
E(s) =𝐾𝑡𝑔 𝜔(s)
𝜔(s) E(s)
𝐾𝑡𝑔

The block diagram relating the output E(s) and the input 𝜔(s) is drawn and
shown in the above figure and the transfer function is given by,
𝐸(𝑠)
=𝐾𝑡𝑔
𝜔(𝑠)

An a.c. tachogenerator can also be used on d.c. systems by using a phase

sensitive rectifier.
 INTRODUCTION TO BASIC CONTROL ACTION OF
CONTROLLERS
Comparison of the actual value of plant output with the desired value is carried
out by an automatic controller. It determines the deviation and generates a
control signal to reduce the deviation to zero or a small value. Industrial
controllers are classified on the basis of control action as follows:
Two position or ON-OFF controllers
Proportional controllers[P]
Proportional plus integral controllers[PI]
Proportional plus derivative controllers[PD]
Proportional plus integral plus derivative controllers[PID]
On-off control
Let the output of the controller be m(t) and input to the
controller be e(t).The error signal, a two-position controller
will produce an output given by
M(t)=M1e(t)>0
=M2e(t)<0,
where M1 and M2 are constants.
Two position controllers are usually electric drives such as
solenoid operated valves, relays, etc. Generally,a deadband is
introduced to prevent chattering operation of the controllers.
∴ M(t)=M1e(t)>0
=M2e(t)>0
The following conclusion can be drawn:
(1) If the reference value falls below the actual value, the error is positive and the output of the
controller is M1.
(2) If the reference value rises above the actual value, the error is negative and the output of the
controller is M2.
ADVANTAGES
These are simple, economic controllers.
DISADVANTAGES
There are not suitable for complex systems.
Proportional controller
In proportional controllers,the output and the error are related by
m(t)=𝑘𝑝 e(t)
Taking Laplace Transform,we can write
M(s)=𝑘𝑝 E(s)
𝑀(𝑠)
=𝑘𝑝
𝐸(𝑠)

Figure shows a second order system

Whose steady state error(𝑒𝑠𝑠 ) is given by
𝐴 𝜔𝑛
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = ; 𝐾𝑣 =
𝐾𝑣 2𝜉
PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE
CONTROLLERS
The schematic diagram of a proportional plus derivative
controller(PD).In PD controllers, output in proportional to
(1)error and (2) derivative of error. From figure
M(s)=(𝑘𝑝 +s𝑘𝑑 )E(s)
Taking inverse Laplace transform
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
m(t)=𝑘𝑝 e(t)+𝑘𝑑
𝑑𝑡
ሖ 𝑘 𝜔
𝜉 ′ = (𝜉 + 𝑑 𝑛 )
2

Therefore, the damping factor increases.

In PD controllers, the following effects have been observed:
(1) Damping ratio improves and maximum overshoot reduces.
(2) Rise time and settling time are reduced.
(3) Bandwidth increases.
(4) Gain margin, phase margin and resonant peak improves.
(5) Noise at higher frequency is accentuated.
Since PD controllers are sensitive to rate of change of error,they correct immediately any
error by anticipating an error on the slope.
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL
CONTROLLERS(PI)
The output is proportional to (1) error and (2) integral of error
M(s)={Kp + Ki\s} E(s)
ess= A\Kv
finally,after limit tends to 0
ess=0
The main positive point is that system behaviour is accurate due to reduction of steady-state error.The
main features are as follows
Order and type of the system increases by 1.
Improvement of damping and reduction of overshoot.
Bandwidth also increases.
Noise is filtered out.
Ki must be designed properly.