Statistics

• Is a scientific body of knowledge

that deals with:
 collection of data
 organization or presentation of
data
 analysis and interpretation of
data
Descriptive
•Statistics
Is a statistical procedure
concerned with describing the
characteristics and properties of
group of persons, places or
things; it is based on easily
verifiable facts.
Inferential Statistics
• Is a statistical procedure used to
draw inferences for the
population on the basis of the
information obtained from the
sample.
Definitions
• Population. It is the total collection of
all the elements (people, events,
objects, measurements, and so on)
one wishes to investigate.
• Sample. Subgroup obtained from a
population.
• Parameter. A numerical value that
describes a characteristic of a
population.
Definitions
• Statistic. It is a numerical value that
describes a particular sample.
• Data. This are facts, or a set of
information gathered or under study.
• Quantitative Data are numerical in
nature and therefore meaningful
arithmetic can be done.
Ex: age
Definitions
• Qualitative Data are attributes which
cannot be subjected to meaningful
arithmetic.
Ex: gender
• Discrete Data assume exact values
only and can be obtained by counting
Ex: number of students
Definitions
• Continuous Data assume infinite
values within a specified interval and
can be obtained by measurement.
Ex: height
• Constant is a characteristic or
property of a population or sample
which makes the member similar to
each other.
Definitions
• Variable is a characteristic or
property of a population or sample
which makes the members different
from each other.
• Dependent. A variable which is
affected by another variable.
Ex: test scores
Definitions
• Independent. A variable which affects
the dependent variable.
Ex: number of hours spent in
studying
 Levels of
•Measurements
Nominal numbers do not mean
anything; they just label.
Ex: SSS Number
• Ordinal numbers are used to label +
rank.
Ex: size of t-shirt
 Levels of
•Measurements
Interval numbers are used to label +
rank; do not have a true zero.
Ex: temperature
• Ratio numbers are used to label +
rank + equal unit of interval; have a
true zero
Ex: number of votes
Target Practice
A. Determine whether the set of data is
qualitative or quantitative.

1. Models of cell phones

2. Number of subscribers to Philippine Daily
News
3. Weights of 1000 packs of a brand of
noodles
4. Yes or No responses to survey question
5. Telephone number
Target Practice
B. Which of the following numbers is
discrete or continuous?
1. Distance from town A to town B
2. Record of absent students in a class in
Statistics
3. Number of customers in a restaurant
4. Number of cars parked in the basement
of a building
5. Weights of all Grades 1 pupils in the
Library School
Target Practice
C. Identify the level of measurement:
nominal(N), ordinal(O), interval(I), or ratio(R)
most appropriate for each of the following
data.

1. Color of the eye

2. Number of votes
3. Rank of faculty
4. Exam score
5. Temperature in Baguio last summer
Determining the
Sample
Slovin’s Size
Formula:
n is the sample size
N
n= N is the population size
1 + Ne 2

e is the margin of error

The margin of error is a value which

quantifies possible sampling errors.
Determining the
Sample
The margin of Size
error can be interpreted
by the use of ideas from the laws of
probability. In reality, it is what
statisticians call a confidence
interval.
Sampling error means that the results
in the sample differ from those of the
target population because of the
“luck of the draw”.
Sampling Techniques
Sampling is the process of selecting
samples from a given population.
Types:
1. Probability Sampling
2. Non-probability Sampling
Sampling Techniques
A. Probability Sampling: Samples are
chosen in such a way that each
member of the population has a
known though not necessarily equal
chance of being included in the
samples.
- Avoids biases
- It provides the basis for calculating
the margin of error.
Sampling Techniques
1. Simple Random Sampling: Samples
are chosen at random with members
of the population having a known or
sometimes equal probability or
chance of being included in the
samples.
a. Lottery
b. Generation of random numbers
Sampling Techniques
2. Systematic Sampling: Samples are
chosen following certain rules set by
the researchers. This involves
choosing the kth member of the
population, with k=N/n, but there
should be a random start.
Sampling Techniques
3. Cluster Sampling: is sometimes
called area sampling because it is
usually applied when the population
is large.
In this technique, groups or
clusters instead of individuals are
randomly chosen.
Sampling Techniques
4. Stratified Random Sampling: This
method is used when the population
is too big to handle, thus dividing N
into subgroups, called strata, is
necessary.
A process that can be used is
proportional allocation.
Sampling Techniques
B. Non Probability Sampling: Each
member of the population does not
have a known chance of being
included in the sample. Instead,
personal judgment plays a very
important role in the selection.
Non-probability sampling is one
of the sources of errors in research.
Sampling Techniques
Types:
1. Convenience Sampling: This type is
used because of the convenience it
offers to the researcher.
2. Quota Sampling: This is very similar
to the stratified random sampling.
The only difference is that the
selection of the members of the
samples in stratified sampling is
done randomly.
Sampling Techniques
3. Purposive Sampling: Choosing the
respondents on the basis of pre-
determined criteria set by the
researcher.
Data Gathering
Techniques
1. The Direct or the Interview Method:
In this method, the researcher has
direct contact with the researcher.
A: Clarification can be done easily.
D: Costly and time-consuming.
Data Gathering
Techniques
1. The Indirect or Questionnaire
Method: The researcher gives or
distributes the questionnaire to the
respondents either by personal
delivery or by mail.
A: Saves time and money; large
number of samples can be reached.
D: Problem of retrieval
Data Gathering
Techniques
The Questionnaire (characteristics)
1.
Data Gathering
Techniques
The Questionnaire (characteristics)
2. There is a descriptive title/name for
the questionnaire.
3. It is designed to achieve objectives.
4. The directions are clear
5. It is designed for easy tabulation.
Data Gathering
Techniques
The Questionnaire (characteristics)
6. It avoids the use of double
negatives.
7. It also avoids double barreled
questions.
8. It phrases questions well for all
respondents.
Data Gathering
Techniques
Types of Questionnaire
• Open – this type has an unlimited
responses
• Closed – this type limits the scope of
responses
• Combination – this type is a
combination of open and closed
types of questionnaire
Data Gathering
Techniques
Types of Questions
• Multiple choice – allows respondent
to select answer/s from the list
• Ranking – asks respondents ton rank
the given items
• Scales – asks respondents to give
his/her degree of agreement to a
statement (Likert-scale)
Data Gathering
Techniques
3.The Registration Method: This
method of gathering data is governed
by laws.
A: Most reliable source of data
D: Data are limited to what are listed
in the documents
Data Gathering
Techniques
4. The Experimental Method: This
method of gathering data is used to
find out cause and effect
relationships.
A: Can go beyond plain description
D: Lots of threats to internal and
external validity
Presentation of Data
Textual Form: Data are presented in
paragraph or in sentences. This
includes enumeration of important
characteristics, emphasizing the
most significant features and
highlighting the most striking
attributes of the set of data.
Presentation of Data
Tabular Form: A more effective device
of presenting data.
1. stem and leaf plots
2. frequency distribution table
3. contingency table
Presentation of Data
Graphical/Pictorial Form: A most
effective device of presenting data.
1. line graph (freq. polygon, ogive)
2. bar graph (histogram)
3. pie chart
4. pictograph
5. statistical maps