Soils and Their Classification 2c

Soils and their Classification
Soils - What are they?

 Particulate materials
- Sedimentary origins (usually)
- Residual
 Wide range of particle sizes

- larger particles: quartz, feldspar
- very small particles: clay minerals
 Voids between particles

A ra g on ite-rich so il x 20 0 0
Cemented calcareous sand
Need for Simple Classification
 Usually soil on site has to be used.
– Soils differ from other engineering materials in that
one has little control over their properties
 Extent and properties of the soil have to be determined
 Cheap and simple tests are required to give an indication

of engineering properties, e.g. stiffness, strength, for
preliminary design
The classification must use core samples obtained from the ground.
This information is often supplemented by in-situ tests such as cone
penetration tests.
Classification based on Particle Size
 Particle size is used because it is related to mineralogy
– e.g. very small particles usually contain clay minerals
 Broad Classification
– Coarse grained soils

» sands, gravels - visible to naked eye
Classification based on Particle Size
 Particle size is used because it is related to mineralogy
– e.g. very small particles usually contain clay minerals
 Broad Classification
– Coarse grained soils

» sands, gravels - visible to naked eye
– Fine grained soils

» silts, clays, organic soils
Procedure for grain size determination
 Sieving - used for particles > 75 mm
 Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

– Analysis based on Stoke’s Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hydrometer test


Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

Grading curves
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
Grading curves
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform
Grading curves
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded
Grading curves
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded
C Well graded with some clay
Grading curves
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
W Well graded
U Uniform
P Poorly graded
C Well graded with some clay
F Well graded with an excess of fines
Simple Classification
 In general soils contain a wide range of particle sizes
 Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with

different proportions of sand/silt/clay is required.

0
100
10
90
20
80
30
70
40 Clay
)
Cla
(%
60
y
es
50
Siz
Siz
50
e s (%
d
60
San
)
Sandy Clay Silty Clay 40
70
30
80 Clay-Sand Clay-Silt
20
90
Silty Sand Sandy Silt 10
100 Sand
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Silt Sizes (%)
LOWER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY DIVISION,
U. S. ENGINEER DEPT.

0
100
10
90
20
80
30
70
40 Clay
)
Cla
(%
60
y
es
50
Siz
Siz
50
e s (%
d
60
San
)
70
30
20
90
100 Sand
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Silt Sizes (%)
U. S. ENGINEER DEPT.
 Note the importance of clay - Finest 20% control behaviour
Example: equal amounts sand/silt/clay
0
100
10
90
20
80
30
70
40 Clay
)
Cla
(%
60
y
es
50
Siz
Siz
50
e s (%
d
60
Sa n
)
70
30
20
90
100 Sand
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Silt Sizes (%)
0
100
10
90
20
80
30
70
40 Clay
)
Cla
(%
60
y
es
50
Siz
Siz
50
e s (%
d
60
Sa n
)
70
30
20
90
100 Sand
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Silt Sizes (%)
0
100
10
90
20
80
30
70
40 Clay
)
Cla
(%
60
y
es
50
Siz
Siz
50
e s (%
d
60
Sa n
)
70
30
20
90
100 Sand
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Silt Sizes (%)
Atterberg Limits
 Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils
Atterberg Limits
Volume
40
30
20
10
0
SL PL LL
0 20 Moisture
40 60
Content (%)
Figure 4 Moisture content versus volume relation during drying
Atterberg Limits
Volume
40
30
20
10
0
SL PL LL
0 20 Moisture
40 60
Content (%)
Figure 4 Moisture content versus volume relation during

drying
 SL - Shrinkage Limit
 PL - Plastic Limit
 LL - Liquid limit
Atterberg Limits
SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit
mass of water
Moisture content 
mass of solids
Atterberg Limits
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit
mass of water
mass of solids
Plasticity Index = LL - PL = PI or Ip
Atterberg Limits
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit
mass of water
mass of solids
Plasticity Index = LL - PL = PI or Ip
Liquidity Index = (m - PL)/Ip = LI

Classification Systems
 Used to determine the suitability of different soils
 Used to develop correlations with useful soil properties
 Special Purpose (Local) Systems

– e.g. PRA system of AAHSO
» 1. Well graded sand or gravel: may include fines
» 2. Sands and Gravels with excess fines
» 3. Fine sands
» 4. Low compressibility silts
» 5. High compressibility silts
» 6. Low to medium compressibility clays
» 7. High compressibility clays
» 8. Peat and organic soils
Unified Soil Classification
 Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The
following procedure is used.
– Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 mm)

» Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand

» Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel

» Suffix depends on %fines


» Suffix depends on %fines
» if %fines < 5% suffix is either W or P

» if %fines > 12% suffix is either M or C
» if 5% < %fines < 12% Dual symbols are used
To determine if W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60
Cu 
D10 x% of the soil has particles
D302 smaller than Dx
Cc 
( D60  D10 )
To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
D60
Cu 
Cc 
( D60  D10 )
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
D60
Cu 
Cc 
( D60  D10 )
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
D60
Cu 
Cc 
( D60  D10 )
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
D90 = 3
mm
D60
Cu 
D10
D302
Cc 
( D60  D10 )
If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use P
If prefix is S then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use P
Coarse grained soils
To determine M or C use plasticity chart
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase
ine
with increasing plasticity index A "l
"
40
Plasticity index
CH
30
20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart
Below A-line use
for suffix
laboratoryM - Silt of fine grained soils
classification
Above A-line use suffix C - Clay

– Fine grained soils (> 50% finer than 75 mm)
– Both letters determined from plasticity chart
60
l ine
with increasing plasticity index "
"A
40
Plasticity index
CH
30
20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
Unified soil classification (including identification and description)
Field identification procedures Group Information required for Laboratory classification

(Excluding particles larger than 75mm and basing fractions on symbols Typical names describing soils criteria
estimated weights) 1
Depending on percentages of fines (fraction smaller than .075mm

D
Bordeline case requiring use of dual symbols

Wide range of grain size and substantial GW Well graded gravels, gravel-
Gravels with Clean gravels
C U = --- 60 Greater than 4
Determine percentages of gravel and sand from grain size curve

Give typical names: indicate ap-
(little or no
amounts of all intermediate particle sand mixtures, little or no proximate percentages of sand D10
fines)
sizes fines 2
and gravel: maximum size: (D30 )
More than half of coarse
C c = ---------------------
fraction is larger than
Predominantly one size or a range of angularity, surface condition, Between 1 and 3

GP Poorly graded gravels, gravel- D10 x D60
sieve size) coarse grained soils are classified as follows

sizes with some intermediate sizes sand mixtures, little or no and hardness of the coarse
More than half of material is larger than
missing fines grains: local or geological name Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW
2.36mm
Gravels
and other pertinent descriptive

amount of fines)
Use grain size curve in identifying the fractions as given under field identification
Non-plastic fines (for identification GM Silty gravels, poorly information and symbol in
(apreciable
procedures see ML below) graded gravel-sand-silt mixtures parentheses. Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with
fines
The .075mm sieve size is about the smallest particle visible to the naked eye
Coarse grained soils
"A" line or PI less than 4 PI between 4 and 7

.075mm sieve size
Plastic fines (for identification pro- GC Clayey gravels, poorly graded For undisturbed soils add infor- are borderline cases
Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
GM, GC, SM, SC

cedures see CL below) gravel-sand-clay mixtures mation on stratification, degree
GW, GP, SW, SP

of compactness, cementation, line with PI greater than 7 symbols
Wide range in grain sizes and sub- moisture conditions and drain- D
SW Well graded sands, gravelly
C U =--- 60 Greater than 6
Clean sands
(little or no
stantial amounts of all intermediate age characteristics.

particle sizes sands, little or no fines D 10
fines)
More than half of coarse
(D 30 )2
fraction is smaller than
Example:
Predominantely one size or a range of SP Poorly graded sands, gravelly C c = --------------------- Between 1 and 3
Silty sand, gravelly; about 20% D 10 x D60
sizes with some intermediate sizes missing sands, little or no fines hard angular gravel particles
2.36mm
Sands
12.5mm maximum size; rounded Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW
More than 12%

amount of fines)
Non-plastic fines (for identification pro- SM Silty sands, poorly graded and subangular sand grains
(appreciable
Less than 5%
Sands with
cedures, see ML below) sand-silt mixtures coarse to fine, about 15% non- Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with
5% to 12%
fines
plastic lines with low dry "A" line or PI less than 4 PI between 4 and 7
Plastic fines (for identification pro- SC Clayey sands, poorly graded strength; well compacted and are borderline cases
cedures, see CL below) sand-clay mixtures moist in places; alluvial sand; Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
(SM) line with PI greater than 7 symbols
Identification procedure on fraction smaller than .425mm
sieve size
Dry strength Dilatency Toughness
More than half of material is smaller than
Silts and clays
crushing (consistency
less than 50
(reaction
liquid limit
character- to shaking) near plastic

istics limit)
Inorganic silts and very fine sands, Give typical name; indicate degree
None to Quick to None rock flour, silty or clayey
ML
Fine grained soils
and character of plasticity,

.075mm sieve size
slight slow fine sands with slight plasticity 60

amount and maximum size of Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
Medium to None to very Inorganic clays of low to medium coarse grains: colour in wet con- 50 Toughness and dry strength increase
high slow Medium CL,CI plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy dition, odour if any, local or in
e
clays, silty clays, lean clays with increasing plasticity index "l
geological name, and other pert- "A
40
Plasticity index
Slight to Slow Slight Organic silts and organic silt- inent descriptive information, and
medium OL clays of low plasticity symbol in parentheses CH
30 CI
inorganic silts, micaceous or
Silts and clays
Slight to Slow to Slight to For undisturbed soils add infor-

greater than
liquid limit
medium none medium MH dictomaceous fine sandy or mation on structure, stratif- OH

silty soils, elastic silts 20
ication, consistency and undis-
50
High to very Inorganic clays of high or

None High turbed and remoulded states, CL OL
high CH plasticity, fat clays moisture and drainage conditions 10
MH
CL-ML or
ML
Medium to None to very Slight to Organic clays of medium to Example 0
high high medium OH high plasticity Clayey silt, brown: slightly plastic: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Readily identified by colour, odour small percentage of fine sand:
Highly organic soils spongy feel and frequently by fibrous Pt Peat and other highly organic soils numerous vertical root holes: firm Plasticity chart
texture and dry in places; loess; (ML) for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
Example
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Example
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
• %fines (% finer than 75 mm) = 11% - Dual symbols required

Example
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
• %fines (% finer than 75 mm) = 11% - Dual symbols required

• D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.25 mm, D60 = 0.75 mm
Example
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Particle size fractions: Gravel 17%

Sand 73%
Silt and Clay 10%
Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
Example
60
l ine
with increasing plasticity index "
"A
40
Plasticity index
CH
30
20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
Suffix2 = M
Dual Symbols are SW-SM

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
Suffix2 = M
Dual Symbols are SW-SM

To complete the classification the Symbols should be accompanied
by a description

Soils and Their Classification 2c

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Soils and Their Classification 2c

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Soils and their Classification

Soils - What are they?

 Wide range of particle sizes

 Voids between particles

 Extent and properties of the soil have to be determined

 Cheap and simple tests are required to give an indication

– Coarse grained soils

– Coarse grained soils

– Fine grained soils

 Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

 Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

 Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

 Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with

 Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with

 Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with

Figure 4 Moisture content versus volume relation during

Liquidity Index = (m - PL)/Ip = LI

 Used to develop correlations with useful soil properties

 Special Purpose (Local) Systems

– Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 mm)

– Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 mm)

» Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand

– Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 mm)

» Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand

» Suffix depends on %fines

– Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 mm)

» Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand

» Suffix depends on %fines

» if %fines < 5% suffix is either W or P

If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3

If prefix is S then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3

Above A-line use suffix C - Clay

Field identification procedures Group Information required for Laboratory classification

Depending on percentages of fines (fraction smaller than .075mm

Bordeline case requiring use of dual symbols

C U = --- 60 Greater than 4

Determine percentages of gravel and sand from grain size curve

Predominantly one size or a range of angularity, surface condition, Between 1 and 3

sieve size) coarse grained soils are classified as follows

and other pertinent descriptive

"A" line or PI less than 4 PI between 4 and 7

GM, GC, SM, SC

GW, GP, SW, SP

stantial amounts of all intermediate age characteristics.

More than 12%

Silts and clays

character- to shaking) near plastic

and character of plasticity,

slight slow fine sands with slight plasticity 60

Slight to Slow to Slight to For undisturbed soils add infor-

medium none medium MH dictomaceous fine sandy or mation on structure, stratif- OH

High to very Inorganic clays of high or

• %fines (% finer than 75 mm) = 11% - Dual symbols required

• %fines (% finer than 75 mm) = 11% - Dual symbols required

Particle size fractions: Gravel 17%

Dual Symbols are SW-SM

Dual Symbols are SW-SM

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