Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

MODULE 4 ELECTRONICS
FUNDAMENTAL
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Chapter 1 Semiconductor
Objectives
After studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Describe the makeup of the atom, and state the relationship between the number of valence
electrons and its conductivity.
2. List the principles that govern the association between electrons and orbital shells.
3. Describe the relationship between conduction and temperature.
4. Contrast trivalent and pentavalent elements.
5. List the similarities and differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors.
6. Explain how a depletion layer is formed around pn junction.
7. Explain the source of barrier potential, and list the barrier potential values for silicon and germanium.
8. Describe the relationship between depletion layer width, junction resistance and junction current.
9. Define bias.
10. Describe the different methods of forward and reverse biasing a pn junction.
11. Describe diffusion current.
12. Explain why silicon is used more commonly than germanium in the production of solid state devices.
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The Atom

The nucleus
contains
protons and
neutrons.
Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbital paths,
called shells.
 The outermost shell is called the valence shell.
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 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Semiconductors
• Semiconductor - An element that is neither an
insulator nor a conductor.
• Semiconductors contain four valence-band
electrons.
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• Three common semiconductor elements are

silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and carbon (C).
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Electrons and Orbital Shells

• Energy gap – The difference between the
energy levels of any two orbital shells.
• Band – Another name for an orbital shell.
• Electron-volt (eV) – The energy absorbed by
an electron when it is subjected to a 1 V
difference of potential.
• Conduction band – The band outside the
valence shell.
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Energy diagrams for the three

types of solids
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Covalent Bonding
• A means of holding atoms together by
sharing valence electrons.
• The center atom (at right) is
electrically stable because its
covalent bond is complete.
• An intrinsic (pure) silicon is
one that has no impurities .
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• In an intrinsic semiconductor, there are relatively

few free electrons.
• Pure semiconductive materials are neither good
conductors nor good insulators.
• Intrinsic semiconductive materials must be
modified by increasing the free electrons and
holes to increase its conductivity and make it
useful for electronic devices
• By adding impurities, n-type and p-type extrinsic
semiconductive material can be produced
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Energy band diagram for a pure silicon crystal

with unexcited atoms. There are no electrons in
the conduction band
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Free electron current in intrinsic silicon is

produced by the movement of thermally generated
free electrons in the conduction band.
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Hole current in intrinsic silicon

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Electron - Hole Pair I

• Electron-hole pair –
A free electron and
its matching valence
band hole.
• Recombination –
The return of a free
electron to the
valence shell.
• Lifetime – The time from the generation of an
electron- hole pair until recombination occurs.
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Creation of electron-hole pairs in a silicon

crystal. An electron in the conduction band
is a free electron.
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 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. Free

electrons are being generated continuously
while some recombine with holes.
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So, what is
• Semiconductor
• Conduction band
• Covalent bonding
• Intrinsic silicon
• Electron-hole pair
• Recombination
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Doping
The process of adding impurity elements to
intrinsic semiconductors to increase and
control conductivity within the material.
• Trivalent element – One that has three
valence electrons.
• p-type material – A semiconductor that has
added trivalent impurities.
• Pentavalent element – One that has five
valence electrons.
• n-type material – A semiconductor that has
added pentavalent impurities.
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n-type Material
• A semiconductor that
has added pentavalent
impurities.
• The pentavalent atom
(As) has a fifth valence
electron that is not a
part of the covalent
bond.
• Relatively little energy is required to force the
excess electron into the conduction band.
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n-type Material Energy Diagram

• Conduction-band
electrons are the
majority carriers.
• Valence-band holes are
the minority carriers.
 The material contains the same overall number of
protons and electrons, so it remains electrically
neutral.
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p-type Material
• A semiconductor that
has added trivalent
impurities.
• The bond requires
one more valence
electron than the
trivalent atom (Al) is
capable of providing.
• The electron shortage results in the bond
having a valence-band hole.
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p-type Material Energy Diagram

• Valence-band holes are
the majority carriers.
• Conduction-band
electrons are the
minority carriers.
 The material contains the same overall number
of protons and electrons, so it remains electrically
neutral.
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The pn Junction
• When the junction is
formed, free-electrons in
the n-type material diffuse
(wander) across the
junction to the p-type
material.
• An electron crossing the
junction into the p-type
material gets trapped in a
valence-band hole.
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The Depletion Layer I

• The diffusion of an electron
from the n-type material to
the p-type material results in:
– One net positive ion in
the n-type material.
– One net negative ion in
the p-type material.
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The Depletion Layer II

• On a larger scale, the area surrounding the
junction is depleted of charge carriers. This is
the depletion layer.
• The difference of potential between the two sides
of the junction is called the barrier potential.
• The barrier potential, VB, is the amount of
voltage required to move electrons through
the electric field.
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 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Bias
- A potential applied to a pn junction to obtain a
desired mode of operation.

• Forward bias – A potential used to reduce the

resistance of a pn junction.

• Reverse bias – A potential used to increase the

resistance of a pn junction.
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Forward Bias
A pn junction is forward biased when the
applied potential causes the n-type material to
be more negative than the p-type material.
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Bulk Resistance
The combined resistance of the n-type and p-type
materials in a forward-biased pn junction.

RB = Rp + Rn
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Forward Voltage
• Forward voltage (VF) is the voltage across a
forward biased pn junction.
• VF is greater than the junction barrier
potential.

VF  0.7 V (for silicon)

VF  0.3 V (for germanium)
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How to Forward Bias a pn Junction

• Apply a potential to the
n-type material that
drives it more negative
than the p-type material.
• Apply a potential to the
p-type material that
drives it more positive
than the n-type material.
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Reverse Bias
• A pn junction is reverse biased when the
applied potential causes the n-type material to
be more positive than the p-type material.
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How to Reverse Bias a pn Junction

• Apply a potential to the
n-type material that
drives it more positive
than the p-type
material.
• Apply a potential to the
p-type material that
drives it more negative
than the n-type
material.
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Bias Polarities and Effects

Bias Type Junction Polarities Junction Resistance

Forward n-type material is Extremely low

more negative than
p-type material.

Reverse p-type material is Extremely high

more negative than
n-type material.
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So, what is
• trivalent, pentavalent, p-type, n-type
• majority carrier for p-type
• majority carrier for n-type
• forward bias, reverse bias
• forward voltage for Si and Ge