PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

(WLE-205)

Presented by:

Mr. Shahnawaz Uddin

1
 Course Contents

Unit-I: INTRODUCTION

• Introduction to Communication System and its Block

Diagram; Representation of Different Types of Signals in
Frequency Domain; Data Representation &
Transmission; Baseband & Passband Signals; Signal
Bandwidth; Transmission Channel Bandwidth; Noise &
Noise Figure; BAUD (symbols/sec)

2
 Course Contents (-contd.)

Unit-II: MODULATION AND MULTIPLEXING

TECHNIQUES

• Purpose of Modulation, AM-theory: sidebands, modulation

index, AM-spectrum, Power in side-bands and carrier;
Switching Modulator; Envelope Detector; Basic Concepts of
Angle Modulation; Introduction to PCM, ASK, FSK and PSK;
MODEM, Data Transmission Modes (Simplex, Half-duplex,
Full-duplex); Multiplexing: Need and Types, Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM), Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).

3
 Course Contents (-contd.)

Unit-III: PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES

• Basic Idea of EM Waves & Their Characteristics; Radio

Communications Frequencies & Wavelengths; Reflection,
Refraction, Interference, & Diffraction of EM Waves;
Definition of Wavelength & Frequency; Polarization of EM
waves; Multipath Propagation of EM Waves; Fading:
Causes and Effects.

4
 Course Contents (-contd.)

Unit-IV: TRANSMISSION CHANNELS

• Transmission Lines: Distributed Constants of Line, Infinite

Line and Its Properties, Reflection in Transmission Lines,
SWR, Lines Terminated with Characteristic Impedance and
with any other Impedance; HF Radio Wave Propagation:
Ground Wave, Sky Wave, & Space Wave; Characteristics of
Ionospheric Reflection of Sky Wave: Virtual Height, Critical
Frequency, Skip Distance and MUF (Maximum Usable
Frequency); Optical Fibers

5
 Course Contents (-contd.)

Unit-V: ANTENNAS

• Radiation from a dipole; Resonant and Non-Resonant

Antennas; Antenna Parameters & Characteristics: Antenna
Gain (Directive Gain, Directivity, & Power Gain), Antenna
Resistance (Radiation Resistance, Loss Resistance &
Efficiency), Beamwidth, Radiated Power, Radiation Pattern,
Polarization; Half-wave Dipole Antenna; Folded Dipole
Antennas; HF and Microwave Antennas.

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 BOOKS RECOMMENDED

• Communication Systems by Haykin Simon; John Wiley &

Sons Inc, N. Delhi

• Electronic Communications Systems by George

Kennedy; Tata Mgraw Hill, N. Delhi

• Electronic Communications by Sanjeev Gupta;

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 UNIT-I: INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Communication:

• Communication= Com [Cum (Latin)=”with“ or “together with”]

+ Unio (Latin)=union
• Therefore, the meaning of Communication is “Union with or
union together with”
Electronic Communication:
• Any transfer of signs, signals, writing, images, sounds, data
or intelligence of any nature transmitted in whole or in part by
a wire, radio, EM waves, photo electronic or photo optical
system
• The definition of an “electronic communication” specifically
excludes a visual or oral communication
8
 Electronic Communication (-contd.)
• In other words, the electronic communication may be broadly
defined as the transfer of information from one point (source)
to another (destination) through a succession of processes:
• The generation of a thought pattern or image in the mind of
an originator
• The description of that image by a set of aural or visual
symbols
• The encoding of these symbols in a form that is suitable for
transmission over a physical medium of interest
• The transmission of the encoded symbols to the desired
destination
• The decoding & reproduction of the original symbols
• The creation of original thought pattern or image

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Communication Systems

10
 Communication Systems (-contd.)
• When the information is to be conveyed over any distance, a particular
system is required that is known as Communication System
• Within a Communication system, the information transfer is frequently
achieved by superimposing or modulating the information on to an
electrical signal or electromagnetic wave, which acts as a carrier for the
information signal
• This modulated carrier is then transmitted to the required destination
where it is received and the original information signal is obtained by
demodulation
• The purpose of a communication system is to transmit information
bearing signals from a source to a user destination
• When the message produced by the source is not electrical in nature, an
input transducer is used to convert it into a time varying electrical signal
(called the message signal)
• By using another transducer connected to the output end of the system,
a distorted version of the message is recreated in its original form, so
that it is suitable for delivery to the user destination 11
 Communication Systems (-contd.)
• The communication system consists of three basic components:
• Transmitter
• Communication channel
• Receiver

Transmitter:
• The transmitter has the function of processing the message signal
into a form suitable for transmission over the channel; such an
operation is called modulation
• It involves varying some parameter like amp, frequency, or phase of
a carrier wave in accordance with the message signal

Channel:
• The function of the channel is to provide a physical connection
between the transmitter output & the receiver input
• It may be a wire-pair, a coaxial cable, an optical fiber, or simply free
12
space
 Communication Systems (-contd.)
• As the transmitted signal propagates along the channel, it is
distorted due to channel imperfections
• Moreover, noise and interfering signals (originating from other
sources) are added to the channel output, with the result that
the received signal is a corrupted version of the transmitted
signal

Receiver:
• The receiver has the function of operating on the received
signal so as to deliver it to the user destination
• This operation of estimating the original message signal is
called detection or demodulation
• The signal processing role of the receiver is thus the reverse of
that of the transmitter
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 Representation of Different Types of Signals
What is a Signal?
• In the present context or in the field of communication, a signal
is defined as a single-valued function of time that conveys
information
• This value may be a real number, in which case we have a
real-valued signal, or it may be a complex number, in which
case we have a complex-valued signal
• The signals may describe a wide variety of physical
phenomena, e.g., voice, picture, pressure, temperature, etc.

Types of Signals:
• Depending on the feature of interest, we may identify four
different methods of dividing into two classes:
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 Representation of Different Types of Signals (-contd.)

(1) Periodic & Non-Periodic Signals:

• A periodic signal g(t) is a function of time (t) that satisfies the
condition g(t)= g (t+T0) for all t, where T0 is a constant
• The smallest value of T0 that satisfies this condition is called the
period of g(t) and this period T0 defines the duration of one
complete cycle of g(t)
• And any signal for which there is no value of T0 to satisfy the
above condition is called a non-periodic or aperiodic signal
(2) Deterministic Signals & Random Signals:
• A deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no
uncertainty w.r.t. its value at any time or the deterministic
signals may be modeled as completely specified functions of
time
• On the other hand, a random signal may be viewed as
belonging to a set of signals, where each signal in the set
having a different waveform
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 Representation of Different Types of Signals (-contd.)
(3) Analog Signals & Digital Signals:
• An analog signal is a signal with an amplitude that varies
continuously for all time, i.e., both amplitude & time are
continuous over their respective intervals
• On the other hand, a discrete-time/digital signal is defined only at
discrete instants of time
• Thus, in this case, the independent variable (time) takes on only
discrete values, which are usually uniformly spaced
• When different samples of discrete-time signal are quantized &
coded, the resulting signal is referred to as a digital signal.

(4) Energy & Power Signals:

• In communication system, a signal may represent a voltage or a
current
• Consider a voltage, v(t) is developed across a resistor R,
producing a current i(t)
• The instantaneous power dissipated in this resistor is defined by
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 Representation of Different Types of Signals (-contd.)

• p(t) = v2(t)/R = R i2(t)

• ⇒ p(t) ∞ v2(t)
or p(t) ∞ i2(t)

• For R = 1Ω,
• p(t) = v2(t) = i2(t)

• Therefore, regardless of whether a given signal, g(t),

represents a voltage or a current, we may express the
instantaneous power associated with the signal as

• p(t) = g2(t)
17
Representation of Different Types of Signals (-contd.)

• Thus the total energy of a signal g(t) will be

T 
E  lim  | g (t ) |2 dt   | g (t ) |2 dt
T 
T 
T
1
• And its average power will be, P  lim 
2
| g (t ) | dt
T  2T
T

• Now, we can say that the signal, g(t), is an energy signal if

the total energy of the signal satisfies the condition 0<E<∞

• And the signal, g(t), is a power signal if and only if the

average power of the signal satisfies the condition 0<P<∞

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Representation of Different Types of Signals (-contd.)

Note:
• The energy and power classifications of signals is
mutually exclusive

• In particular, an energy signal has zero average

power, whereas a power signal has infinite energy

• Also, it is of interest to note that, usually, periodic

signals & random signals are power signals,
whereas signals that are both deterministic & non-
periodic are energy signals

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 Frequency Representation of Signals

• There are many possible methods for representation of signals

in frequency domain

• Fourier Analysis, involving the resolution of signals into

sinusoidal components, overshadows all other methods in
usefulness

• There are several methods of Fourier analysis available for the

representation of signals

• The particular version that is used in practice depends on the

type of signal being considered

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 Frequency Representation of Signals (-contd.)

(1) If the signal is periodic (power signal), then the logical choice
is to use the Fourier Series (FS) to represent the signal in
terms of a set of harmonically related sinusoidal signals

(2) If the signal is an non-periodic (energy signal) then it is

customary to use the Fourier Transform (FT) to represent
the signal

Note:
• The waveform of a signal (the time representation) & its
spectrum (frequency content) are two natural vehicles to
understand the signal

21
Frequency Representation of Signals (-contd.)

22
 Fourier Series

• Let gT0(t) denotes a periodic signal with period T0 and it can be

represented by an infinite sum of sine & cosine terms using
Fourier Series expansion by

• gT0(t)= a0+ 2  [an cos(2πnf0t) + bn sin(2πnf0t)] … (1)
n 1

where (fundamental frequency f0=1/T0)

• Each of the terms cos(2πnf0t) & sin(2πnf0t) is called a basis

function which form an orthogonal set over the interval T0 and
satisfy the relations:
T0 / 2, m  n
T0/2

 cos(2πmf0t) cos(2πnf0t) dt = 
T 0 / 2 0, mn
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 Fourier Series (-contd.)
T0/2

cos(2πmf t) sin(2πnf t) dt =0,

T 0 / 2
0 0 m&n

T0 / 2, m  n
T0/2

sin(2πmf t) sin(2πnf t) dt =
T 0 / 2
0 0 
0, mn

T0 / 2
1
 a0 
T0 g
T0 / 2
T0 (t )dt
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 Fourier Series (-contd.)

T0 /2
1
Similarly, an   g T0 (t) cos(2nf 0 t)dt ;
T0 T0 /2
n  1,2,3, ..., 

T0 /2
1
and bn   g T0 (t) sin(2 nf 0 t)dt ;
T0 T0 /2
n  1,2,3, ..., 

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 FS: Alternate Relation


(a n  jb n ); n0

g T0 (t)   n
c e j2nf0t
...(2) where, c n  a 0 ; n0
n   (a  jb ); n0
 n n
T0 /2
1
 T0
 j2nf0t
And, cn  g (t) e dt ; n  0,1,2, ...
T0  T0 /2

• The equation (2) is referred to as the Complex Exponential Fourier Series

& the coefficients cn are called Complex Fourier Coefficients
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 Example-1
• Consider a periodic train of rectangular pulses of amplitude
(A), duration (T), and period (T0) as shown in the figure
below:
 T T
 A;  t 
gT (t )  
0
2 2

0 ; for all other t

 nT  TA
sinc f n T 
TA
Ans : sinc   
T0  T0  T0 27
 Fourier Transform (FT)
• Let g(t) denote a non-periodic deterministic signal, expressed
as some function of time (t). By definition, the FT of the signal
g(t) is given by the integral



G(f) = g (t ) exp(  j 2ft ) dt ;

where, f is a frequency variable

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 Fourier Transform (-contd.)

• Given the FT, G(f), the original signal g(t) is recovered

exactly using the formula for the inverse FT (IFT):

g (t )   G (f) exp (j2ft) df ; where, t is a time variable
-

• The functions g(t) & G(f) are said to constitute a FT pair

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 FT: Dirichlet’s Conditions
• For the FT of a signal, g(t), to exist, it is sufficient, but not
necessary, that g(t) satisfies three conditions collectively
known as Dirichlet’s conditions:
1. The function g(t) is a single-valued with a finite number of
maxima & minima in any finite time interval
2. The function g(t) has a finite number of discontinuities in any
finite time interval 


3. The function g(t) is absolutely integrable, i.e., | g (t ) | dt < ∞

Note:
• Physical realization of a signal is a sufficient condition for the
existence of a FT
• Indeed all energy signals, i.e., signals g(t) for which




|g(t)|2 dt< ∞ are Fourier transformable
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 Fourier Transform (-contd.)
Note:
• G(f)= F[g(t)] and g(t)= F-1[G(f)]
where, F[ ] and F-1[ ] play the role of linear operators
• Another convenient shorthand notation for FT pair,
represented by g(t) & G(f), is
FT
g (t )  G( f )
IFT

• In general, the FT, G(f) is a complex function of frequency f,

• Therefore, we can express it in the form, G(f)=|G(f)| ejθ(f)
where |G(f)| is called the continuous amplitude spectrum of
g(t), and θ(f) is called the continuous phase spectrum of g(t)
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 Fourier Transform (-contd.)
• For the special case of a real-valued function of time g(t),
we have
G(-f)=G*(f) and |G(-f)|=|G(f)|, θ(-f)= -θ(f)
 we knowthat, z  x  j y; z*  x  j y
 
| z || z |; arg( z )   arg( z ) 
* *

• Hence,
(1) The amp spectrum of the signal is an even function of the
frequency, i.e. symmetric about y-axis

(2) The phase spectrum of the signal is an odd function of the

frequency, i.e. asymmetric about the y-axis

• These two statements are summed up by saying that the

spectrum of a real-valued signal exhibits conjugate
symmetry
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 Sinc Function

sin( )
sinc(  ) 


33
 Example-2: Rectangular Pulse
• Consider a rectangular pulse of duration T and amplitude A, as
shown in fig. 2.2 (a). This pulse can be defined mathematically as:

 1 1
1;  t 
t 2 2
g (t )  A rect  ; where, rect (t )  
T  0; t 
1
 2

34
 Example-3: Exponential Pulse
A truncated form of a
decaying exponential pulse
is shown in fig. 2.4 (a).
Another truncated rising
exponential pulse as shown
in fig. 2.4 (b).

We can express these

decaying pulses as

g(t)=e-at u(t) …(1)

u(t)

g(t)=eat u(-t) …(2)

1, t0

where unit step function, u(t)  1/2, t0
0, t0
 35
 Properties of FT
Property 1: Linearity (Superposition)

36
Example-4: Combination of Exponential Pulses
• Consider a double exponential
pulse (fig. 2.5a) defined by
exp( at ), t 0

g (t )  1, t 0
exp( at ), t0

 exp( a | t |)
• Consider another combination,
which is the difference between
decaying & rising exponential
pulses (fig. 2.5b)
exp( at ), t 0

g (t )  0, t 0
 exp( at ), t0

 exp( a | t |) sgn( t ) 37
 Signum Function

sgn(t)

 1; t 0

sgn( t )  0; t 0
 1; t0
 t

38
 Property 2: Time Scaling
1 f 
Let g(t)  G(f), then g (at )  G 
|a|  a

NOTE:
• Function g(at) represents g(t)
compressed in time by a factor
‘a’, whereas the function G (f/a)
represents G(f) expanded in Fig. (a) g(t) = sin(2πft)
frequency by the same factor ‘a’
• Thus, the scaling property
states that the compression of a
function g(t) in the time domain is
equivalent to the expansion of its
FT G(f) in the frequency domain Fig. (b) g(t) = sin(4πft)
by the same factor, or vice-versa.
Fig. (a) & (b) show the difference between two
39
sinusoidal signals with different frequencies
 Exercise-1
• Calculate the FTs of the following two signals:

exp( t ); t0
(a ) g (t )  
0; t0
exp( 2t ); t0
(b) g (t )  
0; t0

40
 Property 3: Duality
Let g(t)  G(f), then G(t )  g  f 
Example-5: Sinc Pulse
• Consider a signal g(t) in
the form of a sinc
function
g(t)=A sinc(2Wt)

calculate its FT by
applying Duality
Property

A  f 
Ans : rect  
2W  2W 
41
 Property 4: Time Shifting
If g(t)  G(f), then g (t - t 0 )  G(f) e -j2ft 0

NOTE:
• The magnitude of FT of g(t-t0) is unaffected, i.e., the
magnitude spectrum of the FTs of g(t) and g(t-t0) will be same,
but phase of FT of g(t-t0) is changed by the linear factor
–2πft0

42
 Exercise-2
(a) Find the Fourier transform of the half-cosine pulse shown in fig. 2(a).
(b) Apply the time-shifting property to the result obtained in part (a) to evaluate the
spectrum of the half-sine pulse shown in fig. 2(b).
(c) What is the spectrum of the a half-sine pulse having a duration equal to aT?
(d) What is the spectrum of the negative half-sine pulse shown in fig. 2(c)?
(e) Find the spectrum of the single sine pulse shown in fig. 2(d).

Fig. (2) 43
 Property 5: Frequency Shifting

If g(t)  G(f), then e j2f ct g (t)  G(f - f c ); where f c is a real constant

NOTE:
• Multiplication of a given function g(t) by the factor exp(j2πfct)
is equivalent to shifting its FT G(f) in the positive direction by
the amount fc
• This property is called modulation theorem, because a shift of
the range of frequencies in a signal is accomplished by using
modulation

44
 Example-5: Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse
• Consider the pulse
signal g(t) shown in
fig. 2.8(a) which
consists of a
sinusoidal wave of
amplitude A &
frequency fc,
extending in duration
from t = -T/2 to +T/2.
• Mathematically, the
signal g(t) can be
expressed as:
t
g (t )  A rect   cos( 2f c t )
T 
45
 Example-5: Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse

AT
Ans: G(f)  [sinc{T(f  f c )}  sinc{T(f  f c )}]
2

Note:
• In the special case of fcT >>1, we may use the approximate
result:
 AT
 2 sinc{T(f  f c )}; f 0

G(f)  0; f 0
 AT
 sinc{T(f  f c )}; f 0
 2
46
 Property 6: Area Under g(t)


If g (t )  G ( f ), then  g (t )dt  G(0)


• That is, the value of function g(t) is equal to its

Fourier Transform G(f) at f=0

47
 Property 7: Area Under G(f)

If g (t )  G ( f ), then g (0)   G ( f )df


• That is, the value of function g(t) at t=0 is equal to the area
under its Fourier Transform G(f)

48
 Property 8: Differentiation in Time Domain
Let g(t)  G(f),and assume that the first derivativeof g(t)is Fourier transformable.
d
Then g(t)  j 2πf G(f)
dt

• That is, differentiation of a time function g(t) has the effect of

multiplying its FT G(f) by the factor j2πf

• Assuming that the FT of higher-order derivatives of g(t)

exists, we can generalize the above result as
n
d
n
g(t)  ( j 2πf ) G(f)
n

dt

49
 Property 9: Integration in Time Domain

Let g (t )  G ( f ). Then provided that G (0)  0, we have

t
1
g ( )d  j 2f G(f)
• That is, integration of a time function g(t) has the effect of
dividing its FT G(f) by the factor j2πf, assuming that G (0)=0

50
 Example-7: Triangular Pulse

• Consider the doublet pulse

g1(t) shown in fig. (2.10a). By
integrating this pulse with
respect to time, we get the
triangular pulse g2(t) shown in
fig.(2.10b). Now, we have to
calculate the FT of g2(t).

Ans:
• G1(f) = 2jAT sinc(fT) sin(πfT)

• G2(f) = AT2 sinc2(fT)

51
 Property 10: Conjugate Functions

If g(t)  G(f), then for a complex valued time function g(t) we have
g* (t)  G* (f)

52
 Example-8: Real and Imaginary Parts of a
Time Function

• Let g(t) be a complex valued, and can be expressed as

g(t) = Re[g(t)] + j Im[g(t)]

And g*(t) = Re[g(t)] - j Im[g(t)]

Note:
• For a real valued function g(t), we have
G(f) = G*(-f)
• That is, G(f) exhibits conjugate symmetry

53
 Property 11: Multiplication in Time Domain
Let g1 (t )  G1 ( f ) & g 2 (t )  G2 ( f ), then

g1 (t ) g 2 (t )   G1 ( ) G2 ( f   )d


• We conclude that the multiplication of two signals in the time

domain is transformed into the convolution of their individual
FTs in the frequency domain
• This property is known as multiplication theorem
• The shorthand notation for convolution:
G12(f) = G1(f) * G2(f)
• Therefore, we can write

g1 (t ) g2 (t )  G1 ( f ) * G2 ( f )
54
 Property 12: Convolution in Time Domain

Let g1 (t )  G1 ( f ) & g 2 (t )  G2 ( f ), then



 g ( ) g (t   )d  G ( f )G ( f )

1 2 1 2

• The convolution of two signals in the time domain is

transferred into the multiplication of their individual FTs in the
frequency domain
• This property is known as convolution theorem
• Its use permits us to exchange a convolution operation for a
transform multiplication, an operation that is ordinarily easier
to manipulate
• In shorthand notation, we can write:
g1 (t ) * g2 (t )  G1 ( f )G2 ( f )
55
 Problems
Problem 2.2 Evaluate the FT of the damped sinusoidal wave,
g(t) = exp(-t) sin(2πfct) u(t), where u(t) is the unit step function

Problem 2.3 Any function g(t) can be split unambiguously into an

even part & an odd part as shown by g(t) = ge(t) + go(t)
1
The even part is defined by g (t )  [ g (t )  g (t )]
e
2
1
and the odd part is defined by g o (t )  [ g (t )  g (t )]
2
(a) Evaluate the even & odd parts of a rectangular pulse,
 t 1
g (t )  A rect   
T 2
(b) What are the FTs of these two parts of the pulse?
56
 Problems (-contd.)

Problem 2.4 Determine the inverse FT of the frequency function G(f)

defined by the amplitude & phase spectra shown in fig. (P2.2)

Fig. P2.2

57
 Problems (-contd.)
Problem 2.12: The FT G(f) of a signal g(t) is defined by
1, f 0
1

G( f )   , f 0
2

0, f 0

Determine the signal g(t).

F 1 G( f )  G( f )   (t );  F 1 G( f )   (t )  F 1 G( f )

G(f) + G(-f)
G(f) G(-f)
+ =

f f f

58
 Dirac Delta Function (Unit Impulse)

• It is denoted by δ(t)
and is defined as
having zero amplitude
everywhere except
t=0, where it is
infinitely large in such
a way that it contains
unit area under its
curve, i.e.
 (t )  0, t0

and   (t ) dt  1

59
 Dirac Delta Function (Unit Impulse)
• No function in the ordinary sense can  t 2
satisfy two rules of above two equations g (t )  e

• However, we can imagine a sequence of

functions that have progressively taller &
thinner peaks at t=0, with the area under the
curve remaining equal to unity, whereas the
value of the function tends to zero at every
point, except at t=0 where it tends to infinity
• That is, we may view the delta function as
the limiting form of a unit-area pulse as the
pulse-duration approaches zero
1 t
δ(t)  lim rect  ; (if the delta function is expressed as rectangula r pulse)
τ 0 τ
τ
OR
1
 
δ(t)  lim exp   t 2 /  2 ;
τ 0 τ
(if the delta function is expressed as Gaussian pulse)
60
 Properties of Delta Function

1. The delta function is

an even function of
time, i.e. δ (t)= δ (-t)

2. The integral of the

product of δ (t) & any
time function g(t) that
is continuous at t=0 is
equal to g(0); thus Fig. (b) Gaussian pulse g(t) 
1
exp(- t 2 /  2 ) for varying τ
 τ

 g (t ) (t )dt  g (0)


• We refer to this statement as the sifting property of the delta

function because single value of g(t) is sifted out 61
 Properties of Delta Function (-contd.)
3. The sifting property of the delta function may be generalized by
writing 

 g (t ) (t  t )dt  g (t )

0 0

• Since the delta function is an even function of t, we may rewrite the

above equation in a way emphasizing resemblance to the
convolution integral as follows: 

 g ( ) (t   )d  g (t )


or g (t ) *  (t )  g (t )

• That is, the convolution of any function with the delta function
leaves that function unchanged
• We refer to this statement as the replication property of the delta
function 62
 Properties of Delta Function (-contd.)
4. The FT of the delta function is given by

F  (t )    (t ) e  j 2ft dt


 e 0  1
or  (t )  1

• This relations states

that the spectrum of the
delta function δ(t)
extends uniformly over
the entire frequency
interval from -∞ to ∞ as
shown in fig. (2.11b)
63
 Applications of Delta Function
1. DC Signal: If g(t)=1, then G(f) = ?
• By applying the duality property, we get 1 ( f )

• Invoking the definition

of FT, we can deduce
the following useful
relation:


 exp(  j 2ft) dt   ( f )



• As the delta function is real-valued,
we may simplify the above relation:  cos(2ft) dt   ( f )

64
 Applications of Delta Function (-contd.)
2. Complex Exponential Function: If g(t) = exp(j2πfct), then G(f) = ?
• By applying the frequency shifting property, we get

exp( j 2f ct )   ( f  f c )
• That is, the complex exponential function, exp(j2πfct) is
transformed in the frequency domain into a delta function δ(f-fc)
occurring at f = fc
G(f)

0 fc f
Fig. Frequency Spectrum of exponential function
65
 Applications of Delta Function (-contd.)
3. Sinusoidal Functions: If g(t) = cos(2πfct), then G(f) = ?

• First, express cos(2πfct) function into exponential form by using

Euler’s formula and then by using the frequency shifting property,
we obtain
1
cos( 2f c t )  [ ( f  f c )   ( f  f c )]
2
• Similarly, we can get the FT of sin(2πfct) as follows:
1
sin( 2f ct )  [ ( f  f c )   ( f  f c )]
2j

66
Figure 2.15 (a) Sine Function. (b) Spectrum. 67
 Applications of Delta Function (-contd.)
4. Signum Function: The signum
function can be defined as:

 1; t 0

sgn( t )  0; t 0
 1; t0

• The signum function does not
satisfy the Dirichlet conditions,
and strictly speaking, it does not
have FT
• However, we can find FT of
signum function by viewing it as
the limiting form of the
asymmetric double exponential
pulse as:
68
 Applications of Delta Function (-contd.)
sgn( t )  lim g (a, t )
a0

e at ; t0

where g (a, t )  0; t0
 e at ; t0

• We know that
 j 4f
g ( a, t )  2

a  4 2 f 2 
• Therefore,

F [sgn( t )]  F [lim g (a, t )]

a0

 lim F [ g (a, t )]
a0

 j 4f
 lim 2

a0 a  4 2 f 2  69
 Applications of Delta Function (-contd.)
1
• Hence, sgn( t ) 
jf

• Another useful FT pair

involving a signum function in
frequency domain is obtained by
applying the duality property:

1 Fig. Spectrum of signum function

  sgn( f )
jt
1
or   j sgn( f )
t

70
 Applications of Delta Function (-contd.)

5. Unit Step Function:

1, t0

u(t)  1/2, t0
0, t0


• We can represent unit

step function in terms of
signum function as:

1
u (t )  [sgn( t )  1]
2
• Therefore, using linearity 1 1
property, the FT is given by: u (t )   ( f )
j 2f 2 71
 Applications of Delta Function (-contd.)
6. Integration in Time Domain (Revisited):
t

Let y (t )   g ( )d



or y (t )   g ( )u (t   )d

1;  t
1

where, u (t   )   ;  t
2
0;  t
 1 1 
• Now, the FT of y(t) will be Y ( f )  G( f )   ( f )
 j 2f 2 
1 1
or Y( f )  G( f )  G(0) ( f )
j 2f 2
72
 Data Representation & Transmission

• The data may represent the output of a source of information

that is inherently discrete in nature (e.g. a digital computer)
• When channel causes an overlap in time between successive
symbols, this form of distortion can pose a serious problem to
the quality of reception if it is left uncontrolled
• To avoid this, several techniques are used & these techniques
are based on shaping the baseband response of the system
• The use of an approximate waveform for baseband
representation of digital data is basic to its transmission from a
source to destination
• To send the encoded digital data over a channel, we require
the use of a format or waveform for representing the data
• There are several formats (line codes) that can be used for the
electrical representation of binary symbol 1 & 0
73
 Data Representation & Transmission (-contd.)
(a) ON-OFF Signaling:
• In this format 1 is represented by transmitting a pulse of constant
amplitude for the duration of the symbol (Tb) & symbol 0 is represented
by switching-off the pulse for the same duration
(b) Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) Signaling:
• The format, in which symbols 1 & 0 are represented by pulses of equal
positive and negative amplitudes for the bit duration Tb
(c) Return-to-Zero (RZ) Signaling:
• The format in which symbol 1 is represented by a positive rectangular
pulse of half symbol width (Tb/2), & symbol 0 is represented by
transmitting no pulse
(d) Bipolar Return-to-Zero (BRZ) Signaling:
• This uses three amp levels, specifically positive and negative pulses of
equal amp are used alternately for symbol 1, and no pulse is used for
symbol 0
• A useful property of BRZ is that the power spectrum of the transmitted
signal has no dc component & relatively insignificant low-frequency
components for the case when symbols 1 & 0 occur with equal
probability
74
 Data Representation & Transmission (-contd.)
(e) Split Phase (Manchester Code) Signaling:
• In this method of signaling, symbol 1 is represented by a positive pulse
followed by a negative pulse, with both pulses being of equal amp & half-
symbol width
• For symbol 0, the polarities of these two pulses are reversed
• The Manchester code suppresses the dc component & has relatively
insignificant low-frequency components, regardless of the signal
statistics
• This property is essential in some applications

(f) Differential Encoded Signaling:

• In this format, the information is encoded in terms of signal transition
• A transition is used to designate symbol 0, while no transition is used to
designate symbol 1
• The original binary information is recovered by comparing the polarity of
adjacent symbols to establish whether or not a transition has occurred

75
76
 Problem
• The bipolar waveform representing the binary sequence
“0110100011” is transmitted over a noisy channel. The
received waveform is shown in fig. given below, which
contains a single error. Locate the position of this error,
giving your reasons for your answer.

+1
0 t
-1

Tb

77
 Baseband and Passband Signals

Baseband Signal:
• The message signal delivered by a source of information is
referred to as a baseband signal
• The term ‘baseband’ being used to designate the band of
frequencies representing the message signal
• Baseband (message) signals can be of an analog or digital
type
• Analog baseband signals arise when a physical waveform
such as an acoustic or light wave is converted into an
electrical signal
• The output of a digital computer is an example of a
baseband signal of the digital type

78
 Baseband and Passband Signals (-contd.)

Passband Signal:
• Another signal of primary interest is the transmitted signal,
i.e., baseband or passband transmission
• In baseband transmission, the band of transmission
frequencies supported by the channel closely matches the
band of frequencies occupied by the message signal
• In passband transmission, the transmission band of the
channel is centered at a frequency much higher than the
highest frequency component of the message signal
• In this case, the transmitted signal is said to be a passband
signal, the generation of which is accomplished in the
transmitter using a process known as modulation

79
 Signal Bandwidth
• The bandwidth of a signal (e.g. bandwidth of sound signal is
(20000-20) Hz) provides a measure of the extent of significant
spectral content of the signal for positive frequencies
• When the signal is strictly band limited, the bandwidth is well
defined
• There are some commonly used definitions for bandwidth
• The formulation of each definition depends on whether the
signal is low-pass or band-pass
G(f) G(f)
A

Main Lobe

fc-W fc+W
f 0 f
W fc
BW BW

Fig. (a) Low Pass Signal 80

Fig. (b) Band Pass Signal
 Signal Bandwidth (-contd.)
1. Null-to-Null Bandwidth:
• When the spectrum of a signal is symmetric with a main
lobe bounded by well defined nulls (i.e. frequencies at which
the spectrum is zero), we may use the main lobe as the
basis for defining the bandwidth of the signal

2. 3-dB bandwidth:
• For low pass signal, the 3-dB bandwidth is defined as the
separation between zero frequency and the positive
frequency at which the amplitude spectrum drops to 1/√2 of
its peak value at zero frequency
• For the band-pass signal centered at ±fc, the 3-dB
bandwidth is defined as the separation between the two
frequencies at which the amplitude spectrum of the signal
drops to 1/√2 of the peak value at fc

81
 Signal Bandwidth (-contd.)

G(f) G(f)
A

Main Lobe A
A
2 2

fc-W fc+W
W
f 0 f
fc
BW BW

Fig. (b) Band Pass Signal

Fig. (a) Low Pass Signal

82
 Signal Bandwidth (-contd.)

3. Root Mean Square (rms) Bandwidth:

• It is defined as the square root of the second moment of a
properly normalized form of the squared amplitude
spectrum of the signal about a suitably chosen point
1/ 2
 


2 2
f | G ( f ) | df 
Wrms     
 
  | G ( f ) | df 
2

  

• An attractive feature of the rms-bandwidth Wrms is that, it is

more suitable for mathematical evaluation than the other
two definitions of bandwidth, but it is not as easily
measurable in the laboratory
83
 Transmission Channel Bandwidth

• It is the range of frequencies that can be transmitted through

the channel without much attenuation or distortion in the
shape of the signal

• In other words, the difference between the limiting

frequencies within which performance of a device (in respect
to some characteristics) falls within specified limits

84
 Channel Capacity
• How much information can be reliably transferred over a noise
free or noisy channel is known as channel capacity (C)
• In other words, channel capacity is the maximum rate of
information transfer over a noiseless or noisy channel with
arbitrary small probability of error
For Noise Free Channel (Hartley Law):
• C = 2 B log2 (M) b/s
where, B is the bandwidth of the channel and M is the number
of coding levels,i.e., M=2n ; n: number of bits per symbol (level)
For Noisy Channel (Shannon-Hartley Law):
PS
SNR 
• C = B log2 (1+SNR) b/s PN
where, SNR is the pure ratio of the signal power to random
noise power at the input of the receiver (not expressed in dB)
85
 Channel Capacity (-contd.)

Note:
• C = B log2 (1+SNR) b/s
• More signal power increases capacity, but increase is slow
• More bandwidth allows more symbols per second, but also
increases the noise
PS
lim C  1.44
B  N0
where, PN = N0 B; or N0 = PN/B

• The effect of noise on the data channel can be reduced by

increasing the SNR
• It is always desirable to keep the SNR as high as possible to
maximize the signal power so one can receive almost the
original signal
86
 Problems
1. Calculate the capacity of a standard 4-kHz telephone channel
with a 32 dB signal-to-noise ratio.
(Hint: B = 3400 - 300 = 3100 Hz)
• Ans. 32959 bps

2. A system has a bandwidth of 4 kHz and a SNR of 28 dB at

the input to the receiver. Calculate (a) its information carrying
capacity (b) the capacity of the channel if its bandwidth is
doubled, while the transmitted signal power remains constant.
• Ans. (a) 37218 bps (b) 66448 bps

3. If bandwidth=3 kHz & Rb=30 kbps then calculate (a) SNR in

dB (b) number of levels & number of bits in a symbol (c) bit &
symbol duration (d) Baud rate
• Ans. (a) 30 dB (b) M=32, n=5 (c) Tb= 33.33 μs, Ts = 167 μs
(d) R=6000 Bauds
87
 Noise & Noise Figure
Noise:
• In an electrical sense, noise may be defined as any unwanted form
of energy tending to interfere with the proper and easy reception &
reproduction of wanted signals
• Noise is thus seen as limiting the range of system, for a given
transmitted power
• It affects the sensitivity of receivers, by placing a limit on the
weakest signals that can be amplified
• Depending on circumstances, noise may be classified according to
type, source, effect, or relation to the receiver
• For example, it is divided into two broad groups: Noise whose
sources are external to the receiver (External Noise) & Noise
created within the receiver itself (Internal Noise)
External Noises:
• Atmospheric Noise, Extraterrestrial Noise (Solar Noise & Cosmic
Noise) , & Industrial Noise
Internal Noises:
• Thermal Noise, Shot Noise, Transit-time Noise, & Flicker Noise
88
 Noise & Noise Figure (-contd.)
Noise Figure:
• The noise figure (noise factor), F, is defined as the ratio of
SNR at the input terminals of a receiver/amplifier to the SNR
at the output terminals of the receiver/amplifier
Thus, (SNR) (P /P )
F i
 S N i
(at 250 C)
(SNR) o (PS /PN ) o

• The noise figure can be expressed as a pure ratio or in dB

• As a practical receiver/amplifier generates some noise and
the SNR will deteriorate as one moves toward the output
• Therefore, the output SNR will be lower than the input SNR,
and so the noise figure will exceed unity
• However, the noise figure will be 1 for an ideal
receiver/amplifier, which introduces no noise of its own

89
 Baud
• The unit in which the information carrying capacity or
“signaling rate” of a communication channel is measured
• One baud is one symbol (state-transition or level transition) per
sec
• This coincides with bits per sec only for two level modulation
with no framing or stop bits
• A symbol is a unique state of the communication channel,
distinguishable by the receiver from all other possible states
(e.g., it may be amplitude, phase, or frequency of a carrier)

• For an M-ary PAM system with n bits per symbol, the baud rate
(R) is given by
Baud Rate, Rb
R symbols/s or baud
log 2 (M)
where n=log2(M); and Rb is bit rate
90