UNIT-III

Tracking Radars
1. Sequential Lobing
2. Conical scanning
3. Monopulse comparison tracking
1. Amplitude comparison
2. Phase comparison
4. Low angle tracking,
5. Pulse Compression
6. MST radar
7. ECM, ECCM
8. SAR
9. Phased array radar
 UNIT-III

1. Low angle tracking,

2. Pulse Compression

3. MST radar

4. ECM, ECCM
 4. Low angle tracking
Radar that tracks a target at a low elevation angle near
the surface of the earth, can receive two echo signals
from the target.

Surface reflected signals and direct signals combine at the radar to yield an angle
measurement that differ from the true measurement this made with a single target in
the absence of surface reflection. The result in an error in the measurement of
elevation. The surface reflected signal sometimes called an multipath signal.
 Surface reflected signals and direct signals combine at
the radar to yield an angle measurement that differ from
the true measurement this made with a single target in
the absence of surface reflection.

 The result in an error in the measurement of elevation.

 The surface reflected signal sometimes called an

multipath signal.
 ELECTRONIC COUNTER-COUNTER MEASURES(ECCM)
What is Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

Civilian radars and Military radars

must be able to operate in the crowded electromagnetic

environment, both in the radar's own band as well as outside
the band.

The radar must be designed to reject these unwanted radiations

and to minimize the likelihood of its own transmissions causing
trouble to other users of the spectrum. This is the subject of
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC).
Military radars also operate
in a hostile environment where they may be subjected to
deliberate interference designed to degrade their performance.

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ECM AND ECCM
Electronic Countermeasures (ECM):
The various methods for interfering electronically with radar
are called electronic countermeasures.
Active ECM:
Active ECM is sometimes referred to as jamming.
passive ECM:
such as chaff, which reflects radar energy to create
clutter and false targets.
ECCM (electronic counter- countermeasures):
The methods employed to combat ECM are called
electronic counter- countermeasures, or ECCM.

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ECM AND ECCM
The several forms of ECM:
Noise jamming, Deception jamming, Chaff, and Decoys.
ESM, ARM, EW:
ESM electronic- support measures
ARM antiradiation missiles
EW electronic warfare
Intercept receivers and direction finders which are called
electronic- support measures, or ESM, as well as
antiradiation missiles (ARM) are also features of electronic
warfare (EW) that must be of concern to the military radar
systems designer.
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 ECM AND ECCM
ECM can be brought to bear against any single radar to
significantly reduce its effectiveness.

The goal of ECCM is to raise the cost of ECM to the

point where it is prohibitive.

The effect of ECM on a single radar can seldom be

considered in isolation

A military radar is almost always in support of a weapon

system.
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 ECM AND ECCM
As a general rule, good radar design practice can reduce
vulnerability to electronic countermeasures.

Good design is based on maximizing the ratio of the signal energy

to noise power per hertz, (E/No), as well as employing techniques
to reduce mutual interference.

It is important to avoid receiver saturation, or overloading.

A wide dynamic range is desired, Linear rather than square-law

detectors are preferred.

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 ECM AND ECCM

The radar should be designed normally with larger

power and larger antenna aperture than the minimum
required for marginal detection.

One of the better measures against many forms of ECM

is an alert, highly motivated, well trained, and
experienced operator.

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 Noise jamming
Receiver noise generally limits the sensitivity of most microwave
radars. Raising the noise level by external means, as with a jammer,
further degrades the sensitivity of the radar.

Noise is a fundamental limitation to radar performance and therefore

can be an effective countermeasure.

The ECCM designer must minimize the amount of noise a jammer

can introduce into the radar receiver.

It is difficult, however, to keep the noise out when the jammer is

being illuminated by the main beam of the radar antenna.
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 Noise jamming
When this occurs, the narrow sector in the direction of the jammer
will appear as a radial strobe on the PPI display.

The direction to the jammer can be determined, but its range and
the ranges of any targets

masked by the noise strobe is not likely to be known. If noise

enters the radar via the antenna

sidelobes, the entire display can be obliterated and no target

information obtained.
Thus it is essential that noise be prevented from entering the
receiver via the antenna sidelobes.
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 Noise jamming

spot jammer: A jammer whose noise energy is concentrated within the

radar receiver bandwidth is called a spot jammer. The spot jammer can be a
potent threat to the radar if it is allowed to concentrate large power entirely
within the radar bandwidth.

The radar systems designer must prevent this by forcing the jammer to spread its
power over a much wider band. This can be accomplished by changing the radar
frequency from pulse to pulse in an unpredictable fashion over the entire tuning
band available to the radar.

Barrage jammrer: A jammer which radiates over a wide band of

frequencies is called a barrage jammrer.

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agility : A radar capable of changing its frequency from
pulse to pulse is said to possess frequency agility.

(Even in the absence of ECM, frequency agility has advantages in filling in the nulls of

the elevation radiation pattern and in decorrelating target echoes so as to increase the
probability of detection)

A jammer can also be forced to widen its jamming band if there are
many radars operating within the same geographic area, each at a
different frequency distributed over the available radar tuning
range.
 Noise jamming
To take full advantage of frequency agility, the radar should employ a pre-look
receiver examine the jammer's spectrum and select a frequency for the next radar
transmission where the noise is a minimum.
The jamming power is seldom uniform over the band. Prelook sampling of the
environment can take place during the radar interpulse period just prior to each
transmission, so as to select on a pulse-to-pulse basis that frequency which offers
the Least jamming interference.
Pulse compression is sometimes credited as causing the jammer to spread its
energy over a wider band than that of a normal spot jammer.
pulse compression is not often purposely employed as a prime ECCM technique.
It is almost always used as a means to achieve good range resolution with a long
pulse.
The jammer usually forced to spread its power over a much wider hand than the
spectral width of most pulse compression radars in order to significantly reduce its
effectiveness.
Thus pulse compression should not be given too large a credit as a major ECCM
technique, although it is certainly a positive factor.
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 Noise jamming
Forcing the jammer to spread power over the entire band available to
a radar is generally not sufficient in itself.

The jammer also must be forced to spread its available power over
more than one radar band.

This can be accomplished with frequency diversity by using two or

more radars.

A 2D air-surveillance radar in one band used with a height-finder

radar in another band is a good method for achieving frequency
diversity. Both radar bands have to be jammed simultaneously if
target location is to be denied.

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 2. Pulse Compression

Radar Resolution, Pulse Compression,

Advantages of pulse compression, pulse
compression with FM, Linear FM(chirp
radar) or Non-linear FM, Time-frequency-
coded waveform FM (e.g. Costas code) or PM
 What is the radar Range resolution?
Resolution is usually divided into two categories:
1. Range resolution and
2. Bearing resolution.
Range resolution is the ability of a radar system to distinguish
between two or more targets on the same bearing but at different
ranges.

The degree of range resolution depends on the width of the

transmitted pulse, the types and sizes of targets, and the efficiency
of the receiver and indicator.

The target resolution of a radar is its ability to distinguish

between targets that are very close in either range or bearing.
 Pulse Compression
1. Pulse compression is a signal processing technique mainly
used in radar, and sonar to increase the range resolution as well
as the signal to noise ratio.

2. This is achieved by modulating the transmitted pulse and then

correlating the received signal with the transmitted pulse

The ability to compress the pulse depends on the bandwidth of the

transmitted pulse (BWtx) not by its pulse width.
 Pulse Compression
1. Pulse compression is a generic term that is used to describe a wave
shaping process that is produced as a propagating waveform is
modified by the electrical network properties of the transmission
line.

2. The pulse is frequency modulated(), which provides a method to

further resolve targets which may have overlapping returns.

3. Pulse compression originated with the desire to amplify the

transmitted impulse (peak) power by temporal compression.

4. It is a method which combines the high energy of a long pulse

width with the high resolution of a short pulse width.
 Pulse Compression
Advantages
1. lower pulse-power therefore suitable for Solid-State-amplifier
2. higher maximum range
3. good range resolution, improving the SNR
4. better jamming immunity

Pulse compression with

1. FM (frequency modulation)
i. Linear FM(chirp radar) or
ii. Non-linear FM,
iii. Time-frequency-coded waveform FM (e.g. Costas code) or
2. PM (phase modulation).
 Pulse Compression
1. Pulse compression with linear FM waveform

1. The compression filter are simply dispersive delay lines with a

delay, which is a linear function of the frequency.
2. The compression filter produces a narrower output pulse with a
higher amplitude.
3. Filters for linear FM pulse compression radars are now based
on two main types.
1. Digital processing (following of the A/D- conversion).
2. Surface acoustic wave devices.
 2 Pulse compression by phase coding

 Phase modulation is a commonly used technique; in

this case, the pulse is divided in time slots of

duration for which the phase at the origin is chosen

according to a pre-established convention

filters for frequency components
delay lines for the time duration
Uin
summary devices

time duration of
a frequency component
 Pulse Compression
Increases frequency of the wave within the pulse.

Allows for good range resolution while packing

enough power to provide a large maximum
range.
 MST
(Mesosphere Stratosphere and Troposphere)
 MST Radar
MST(Mesosphere Stratosphere and Troposphere):
 A new generation of sensitive Doppler radars can be used
to observe radial compound of wind, turbulence and stable
atmospheric layer in the
Troposphere (10km)
Stratosphere (10-50km) and
Mesosphere (50-100km).
 These radars are called as M S T

(Mesosphere Stratosphere and Troposphere)

The MST radar is capable probing the clear atmosphere
over the height range of (1-100km )

All VHF radars are basically coherent radars,

capable of measuring the Doppler spectrum of the

echo, from which the radial component of the wind can
be determined ,while the magnitude of the horizontal
wind can also be deduced there from with certain
assumptions.
Such Doppler radars has been used to observe winds at
all heights from the surface through the lower
stratosphere

Also the wind profiles above the boundary layer

throughout the troposphere and lower troposphere have
been obtained using a variety of VHF and UHF
atmospheric radar systems
 MST Radar System
Optimally desired UHF system have also been developed
to extend the height range of observation through the
mesosphere, covering the entire middle atmosphere
comprised of
( 1) Mesosphere
(2) Stratosphere
(3) Troposphere
collectively referred to as MST system
Synthetic Aperture Radar
or
SAR
 Synthetic aperture radar (SAR)

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is a form

of radar which is used to create images of objects,
such as landscapes – these images can be either two or
three dimensional representations of the object.

SAR uses the motion of the radar antenna over a targeted

region to provide finer spatial resolution than is possible with
conventional beam-scanning radars.
SAR is typically mounted on a moving platform such as
an aircraft or spacecraft, and has its origins in an
advanced form of side-looking airborne radar (SLAR).
The distance the SAR device travels over a target in the
time taken for the radar pulses to return to the antenna
creates the large "synthetic" antenna aperture (the "size"
of the antenna).
As a rule of thumb, the larger the aperture is, the higher
the image resolution will be, in spite of of whether the
aperture is physical (a large antenna) or 'synthetic' (a
moving antenna) – this allows SAR to create high
resolution images with comparatively small physical
antennas.
To create a SAR image,
successive pulses of radio waves are transmitted to "illuminate" a
target scene, and the echo of each pulse is received and recorded.
The pulses are transmitted and the echoes received using a
single beam-forming antenna, with wavelengths of a meter down to
several millimeters.
As the SAR device on board the aircraft or spacecraft moves,
the antenna location relative to the target changes with time.
Signal processing of the successive recorded radar echoes allows
the combining of the recordings from these multiple antenna
positions – this process forms the 'synthetic antenna aperture', and
allows the creation of higher resolution images than would
otherwise be possible with a given physical antenna.
 Synthetic Aperture Radar or SAR
A Synthetic Aperture Radar or SAR

SAR is a coherent type

mostly airborne or spaceborne side looking radar
system which utilizes the flight path of the platform
to simulate an extremely large antenna or aperture
electronically, and that generates high-resolution
remote sensing imagery.
 Synthetic Aperture Radar or SAR
IMU: Inertial Measurement Unit: An IMU is an electronic device
that measures and reports a body's specific force, angular rate, and
sometimes the magnetic field surrounding the body, using a
combination of accelerometers and gyroscopes, sometimes also
magnetometers.
The SAR signal linear frequency modulated (LFM) pulse or the
stepped frequency is generated by the waveform generator and
passed to the transmitter.

To be able to correct these effects caused by such instabilities,

most SAR systems carry inertial measurement unit (IMU) and
global positioning system (GPS) sensors to record the mission
history of the flight.
 SAR
1. Global Positioning System (GPS)

2. Processor Control Unit (PCU)

3. Stepped frequency

4. SAR antenna
5. A/D convertor unit

6. Signal processing unit

7. Operator interface & display controller

8. Storage
3. A SAR antenna beam former can be used to form and
direct the main beam along the direction of the scene
or target.

4. The transmitted SAR signal is reflected back from the

scene or target, the received signal is collected by the
SAR antenna and passed to the receiver.
5. The signal after the receiver’s output is sampled
and digitized by the analog-to-digital converter

6. Post processing of raw SAR data to successfully

correct such error results in what is called the
focused SAR image
 The SAR signal linear frequency modulated (LFM)
pulse or the stepped frequency is generated by the
waveform generator and passed to the transmitter.

Basic block diagram for a typical SAR system

The SAR works similar of a phased array, but contrary of a large
number of the parallel antenna elements of a phased array, SAR
uses one antenna in time-multiplex.
The SAR-processor stores all the radar returned signals, as
amplitudes and phases, for the time period T from position A to D.
Now it is possible to reconstruct the signal which would have been
obtained by an antenna.
As the line of sight direction changes along the radar platform
trajectory, a synthetic aperture is produced by signal processing
that has the effect of lengthening the antenna.
a higher resolution can be achieved by Making T large the
synthetic aperture large.
As a target (like a ship) first enters the radar beam, the
backscattered echoes from each transmitted pulse begin to be
recorded.
As the platform continues to move forward, all echoes from the
target for each pulse are recorded during the entire time that the
target is within the beam.
The point at which the target leaves the view of the radar beam
some time later, determines the length of the simulated or
synthesized antenna.
The synthesized expanding beamwidth, combined with the
increased time a target is within the beam as ground range
increases, balance each other, such that the resolution remains
constant .
Phased Array Radar
 Phased Array Radar
 Phased Array is a directive antenna

 P. A. Antenna made up of individual radiating antennas,

or elements which generates a radiation pattern whose
shape and direction is determined by the relative phases
and amplitudes of the currents at the individual elements

 The inherent flexibility offered by the phased-array

antenna in steering the beam by means of electronic
control is what has made it of interest for radar
 An array antenna consists of a number of individual radiating
elements suitably spaced with respect to one another.

 The relative amplitude and phase of signals applied to each of

the elements controlled to obtain the desired radiation pattern
from the combined action of all the elements

 Two common geometrical forms of array elements of interest in

radar are the 1. linear array and 2. planar array

1. Linear array: consists of elements arranged in a straight line in

one dimension

The linear array generates a fan beam when the phase relation-
ship are such that the radiation is perpendicular to the to the array
 The linear array can also acts as a for parabolic-cylindrical antenna

The combination of linear array feed parabolic-cylinder generates a

more controlled fan beam and also pencil beam

2. Planar array :
 A planar array is a two dimensional configuration of
elements arranged to lie in a plane

 A broadside array is one in which the direction of maximum

radiation is perpendicular, or almost perpendicular to the line
(plane) of the array
 An endfire array has its maximum radiation parallel to the
array.
 Phased Array Radar
 A directive antenna array, in which the relative phase and
amplitudes of the currents at the individual elements are
controlled to obtain the desired shape and direction of the
radiation pattern, is called a phased array.

 The control of the relative phases can be used to stear beam,

while the control of relative amplitude may be used to synthesis
a desired shape of the patter with a minimum of side lobes.
 Phased array radar
1. An arrangement of dipoles on a radar antenna, in which
the phase of each dipole is controlled by a computer so
that the beam can scan very rapidly.

2. An array of radio antenna connected together to form a

single antenna. The beam produced can be steered across
the sky by adjusting the phases of the signals.

3. The absence of moving parts enables the beams to be

steered very rapidly, making it useful in radar
 Phased Array
 A phased array is an array of antennas in which the
relative phases of the respective signals feeding the antennas
are varied in such a way that the effective radiation pattern of
the array is reinforced in a desired direction and suppressed in
undesired directions.
 An antenna array is a group of multiple active antennas coupled to
a common source or load to produce a directive radiation pattern.
Usually, the spatial relationship of the individual antennas also
contributes to the directivity of the antenna array.
 Use of the term "active antennas" is intended to describe elements
whose energy output is modified due to the presence of a source of
energy in the element or an element in which the energy output
from a source of energy is controlled by the signal input.
 There are two main types of beamformers.
1. Time domain beam formers and
2. Frequency domain beam formers.
 A graduated attenuation window is sometimes applied across the face of the array to improve side-lobe
suppression performance, in addition to the phase shift.

 Time domain beamformer works by introducing time delays.

The basic operation is called "delay and sum".
It delays the incoming signal from each array element by a certain amount of
time, and then adds them together.
 Active phase array uses individual delay lines that are switched on and off.
 There are two different types of frequency domain beamformers.
 The first type separates the different frequency components that are present in
the received signal into multiple frequency bins (using either (DFT) or
a filterbank).
When different delay and sum beamformers are applied to each frequency bin,
the result is that the main lobe simultaneously points in multiple different
directions at each of the different frequencies.
 The other type of frequency domain beamformer makes use of
Spatial Frequency. Discrete samples are taken from each of the
individual array elements. The samples are processed using a DFT.
 The DFT introduces multiple different discrete phase shifts during
processing. The outputs of the DFT are individual channels that
correspond with evenly spaced beams formed simultaneously. A 1-
dimensional DFT produces a fan of different beams. A 2-dimensional
DFT produces beams with apineapple configuration.
 These techniques are used to create two kinds of phase array.
 Dynamic - an array of variable phase shifters are used to move the
beam
 Fixed - the beam position is stationary with respect to the array face
and the whole antenna is moved
 There are two further sub-categories that modify the kind of dynamic
array or fixed array.
1 Active - amplifiers or processors in each phase shifter element
2 Passive - large central amplifier with attenuating phase shifters