FLIGHT DISPATCHERS

RECURRENT TRAINNING
MAX AIR LTD
JULY 2017
 Aerodynamics
• BASIC AERODYNAMICS

• This section introduces you to the fundamental aerodynamic

principles that apply to all aircraft. It also introduces the
primary and secondary flight controls and their effect on
aircraft flight, high lift devices, and the basics of stability and
controllability.

• The science of aerodynamics deals with the motion of air and

the forces acting on bodies moving relative to the air. When
studying aerodynamics, you are learning about why and how
an airplane flies. The challenge is to understand what makes
an airplane fly begins with learning the four forces of flight.
 This study of Basic Aerodynamics covers:

• The Four Forces of Flight

• Stalls, Stalling Speeds, and Load Factor
• Flight Controls
• High Lift Devices
• Stability
• Center of Gravity
• Climb, Turning, and Mach Speed Flight
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Describe the basic aerodynamic principles of flight and the forces

acting on an aircraft.
• Identify the primary and secondary flight controls and describe
their function.
• Describe the three types of stability and their effect on flight.
• Describe Center of Gravity and discuss the effects of different CG
positions on flight safety.
• Identify the factors involved in climbing, turning, and Mach speed
flight.
 FOUR FORCES OF FLIGHT
Four forces act upon an aircraft in flight:
lift, weight, thrust, and drag.
Lift and weight act in directions opposite each
other,
while thrust and drag also act in directions
opposite each other.
FOUR FORCES OF FLIGHT
 LIFT
Lift is the upward force created by air flowing over and
under the wing. Lift is the key aerodynamic force.

Lift:

• Is the force that opposes weight.

• Equals weight in straight and level un-accelerated
flight.
• Always acts perpendicular to the oncoming air flow.
 NEWTON’S LAWS OF FORCE AND MOTION
Knowledge of the basic principles of motion will help you to
understand the force of lift. This is best stated by Newton’s Laws of
Force and Motion:

• First Law: A body in motion stays in motion in a straight line and a

body at rest stays at rest unless acted upon by an outside force. This
is the law that defines the property known as inertia.
• Second Law: Force equals Mass times Acceleration (F = M x A)
• Third Law: For every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.

The response of the wing to Newton’s Laws accounts for about

75 percent of the wing’s total lift.
 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Bernoulli’s Principle states that as the velocity of
a fluid increases, its internal pressure
decreases. This principle is derived from
Newton’s Second Law.

Bernoulli studied the effect on the pressure of a

fluid such as air as it flows through a
constriction in a tube.
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
 -
• Air entering the tube is traveling at a known velocity and
pressure. As the airflow enters the narrow section, the
velocity increases and the pressure decreases. As the
airflow exits the tube, both the velocity and pressure return
to their original values.

• The total pressure is divided into two components, static

pressure and dynamic pressure. The total pressure in the
system is always constant, so as dynamic pressure
increases, static pressure must decrease and vice- versa.
Think of dynamic pressure as velocity, so if the velocity of
the fluid increases, as in the restricted portion of the
venturi, the static pressure must decrease.
 PARTS OF A WING
Most wings share some common characteristics. You should know the
definition of the basic parts of a wing.

• The Leading Edge is the rounded part that first meets the
oncoming airflow and is where the air separates to flow over the
upper and lower surfaces.
• The Trailing Edge is usually a thin, sharp edge where the air flowing
over the upper surfaces rejoins the air flowing beneath the wing.
• The Chord or Chord Line is a straight line extending from the most
forward point on the leading edge to the most rearward point on
the trailing edge.
• Camber is the term that describes the curvature of the upper and
lower surfaces of a wing and, in general, the more pronounced the
camber, the more lift the wing will generate.
 CREATION OF LIFT
The airplane’s wing shape is designed to take advantage of
both Newton’s Laws and Bernoulli’s Principle. The deflection
of the oncoming air stream upward and over the wing is
called upwash. Since the wing strikes the oncoming air at an
angle, the air flowing around the wing is also deflected
downward as it leaves the trailing edge. This is called
downwash.
Although the real details of how an object generates lift are very
complex, one of the key factors is the need to simultaneously
conserve mass, momentum, and energy in the flow of a gas.
The key to lift is the turning of the airflow resulting in a
change in momentum and energy of the mass of the air
because of the change in direction.
This causes a reaction in the opposite direction, and this reaction
is called lift
 ANGLE OF ATTACK
• Relative wind is the term which defines the direction of the
oncoming airstream with respect to the aircraft over which
it flows. The relative wind is always parallel to and in the
direction opposite the flight path. The flight path is the
path the airplane is traveling through the air. This path does
not necessarily correspond to the direction the aircraft
nose is pointed.

• The angle formed by the relative wind and the chord line of
the wing is called the angle of attack (AOA). Up to a certain
point, as the angle of attack increases, lift also increases.
Lift acts perpendicular to the relative wind, regardless of
the angle of attack.
 ANGLE OF ATTACK
• Here are several important facts about lift and angle of attack that you
need to know:
• Lift is proportional to the square of the airspeed - if the airspeed is
doubled, lift increases four times. The amount of lift created is dependent
on true airspeed, angle of attack, and air density. If airspeed decreases,
AOA must increase if lift is to remain constant.
• As density decreases, true airspeed must be increased to maintain the
same amount of lift at a given angle of attack.
• Changing the angle of attack allows the pilot to control lift, airspeed,
and drag.
• When a wing is flying close to the ground, as in takeoff and landing, it is
said to be operating in ground effect.
• When operating in ground effect, a wing can generate the same amount of
lift at a lower angle of attack because energy losses are reduced
 ANGLE OF ATTACK
In ground effect, circulation around the wing
changes, trapping a cushion of air between
the wing and the ground. Drag decreases and
the ratio of lift over drag (L/D) increases
(equaling greater efficiency) resulting in a
reduction in AOA for an equal amount of lift.
 WEIGHT

• Weight, which opposes lift, is a force generated by

the gravitational attraction of the earth on the aircraft.
Weight acts vertically between the center of the
aircraft and the center of the earth. Weight is not a
constant—it varies with passenger load, fuel burn,
baggage, equipment installed in the aircraft, etc.
• Do not confuse weight with load factor, a term you’ll
be hearing more about soon. Load factor is the ratio
between the weight of the aircraft and the load
imposed by acceleration forces during a maneuver.
 THRUST

Thrust is the forward-acting force that moves an

aircraft through the air; it is generated by the
engines of the aircraft. Newton’s second law
states that a force acting on a mass will
accelerate that mass in the direction of the
force. In a jet engine, the heat energy
produced by the combustion of the air and
fuel mixture accelerates the exhaust gases out
the rear of the engine.
 THRUST
Newton’s third law states that the reaction to
the acceleration of the exhaust gases rearward
acts through the engine and airplane structure to
thrust the airplane forward. Much the same
occurs with a propeller-driven aircraft except that
the energy produced by the engine is transmitted
to the propeller which, in turn, accelerates a large
mass of air rearward. The reaction to this
acceleration produces a forward force on the
propeller. This force is transmitted through the
propeller hub to the engine and airframe, again
resulting in forward motion of the aircraft.
 DRAG
Drag is the aerodynamic force that opposes an aircraft’s
motion through the air. It acts in the opposite direction of
the flight path (parallel to the relative wind) and opposes
the forward acting force of thrust.
Drag is generated by every part of the airplane, including the
engines. It is created by many factors such as:

• Air resistance (the reluctance of the air to move out of the

way)
• Friction
• Turbulent flow around the structure
• The production of lift
 DRAG
Induced drag is the result of the energy required to
produce lift. It increases as airspeed decreases because
the wing has to work harder (requires a higher AOA) to
produce the lift required to support the weight of the
aircraft.

Parasite drag is the result of the resistance of the air to the

passage of the aircraft. It increases as the airspeed
increases.

The speed at which the induced and parasite drag curves cross
is known as the point of maximum lift over drag, also called
maximum L/D or best L/D.
 FLIGHT AT BEST (MAXIMUM) L/D
• For gliders and reciprocating-engine propeller-
driven aircraft, at best L/D speed, the least
power is required to maintain level flight and
maximum range is achieved. This is also the
best gliding speed.

• For jets, however, flight at best L/D speed

results in maximum endurance, while
maximum range is achieved at a higher speed.
 FLIGHT AT BEST (MAXIMUM) L/D
• At any speed below best L/D speed, total drag
increases because of increased induced drag. At any
speed above best L/D speed, total drag increases
because of increased parasite drag.

• As an airplane flies out of ground effect, induced drag

increases due to the need to increase the angle of
attack. As the gross weight of an aircraft increases,
induced drag increases more than parasite drag
because more lift is required to support the weight and
this requires a higher angle of attack at any given
airspeed.
 STALLS
• The second section of Basic Aerodynamics discusses two critical
flight parameters, stalls and the speeds at which stall occurs, and
load factor.

• As an airplane flies slower, the angle of attack must increase to

generate enough lift to support the weight. At a certain critical
angle, the airflow over the top of the wing becomes turbulent and
separates from the top of the wing. This turbulence causes a
complete loss of lift as the airflow separates. This is called a stall
and the speed at which the stall occurs is called the stalling speed.

• The stalling speed is affected by total weight, load factor, and

power. Turbulent air can also induce a stall by causing an abrupt
change in the relative wind.
 STALLS AND LIGHT, MULTI-ENGINE AIRPLANES

• Light, propeller-driven multi-engine airplanes are commonly used as pilot

training aircraft for those seeking a multi-engine airplane rating. These
aircraft have minimal power reserves and may display some less-than-
desirable stall characteristics when operating on one engine. Stalls should
never be practiced when operating on one engine.

• The blue radial line on the airspeed indicator indicates the maximum
single-engine rate of climb airspeed. The ball in the skid-slip indicator may,
and should, be outside the reference lines whenever operating at speeds
greater than Vmc, the minimum controllable engine-inoperative speed to
reduce drag and ensure best climb performance.

• Flight tests have shown that holding the ball in the center while
maintaining heading with wings level increases Vmc by as much as 20
knots due to increased drag.
 VORTEX GENERATORS

At high sub-sonic cruising speeds, the airflow over

portions of the upper surface of the wing may
become supersonic. Supersonic flow over the
wing is responsible for:
• The formation of shock waves on the wing, which
result in a large increase in drag.
• An aft shift in the center of lift resulting in a nose-
down pitching moment called “Mach tuck” or
“tuck-under”.
• Airflow separation behind the shock waves
resulting in Mach buffet.
 VORTEX GENERATORS

Vortex generators are small vanes affixed to the upper

wing surface, extending approximately one to two
inches in height. Vortex generators are mounted in
pairs, and the air spilling over their upper ends forms
swirls, or vortices.
These vortices pull high-energy air down to the surface
of the wing. Vortex generators reduce the drag caused
by supersonic airflow over portions of the wing. Vortex
generators, a rougher wing surface, and slots prevent
the air separating from the surface of the wing. This
tends to allow the wing to reach a slightly higher angle
of attack before stalling.
 LOAD FACTOR
• Load factor is the ratio of the load supported by the airplane’s
wings (the total lift being generated) to the total weight of the
airplane and its contents. It is computed by dividing total lift by
total weight and expressed as a multiple of 1 G (the force of
gravity). In straight-and-level flight, the load factor is 1 times the
force of gravity, or 1 G. During level- flight turns (turns in which
altitude is maintained) centrifugal force component of lift is
lost. Compensation for these factors requires an increase in angle
of attack, which increases both the total lift force and the total load
that the wings must support, thus increasing the load factor as well.

• In a level coordinated turn, load factor is dependent only on the

angle of bank. Increasing the load factor increases the stalling
speed of the aircraft. For any given angle of bank, the load factor is
constant regardless of airspeed.
 AXES OF AN AIRPLANE
• The third section of Basic Aerodynamics focuses on the
axes of an aircraft and the primary flight controls that
produce rotation around each axis. It also introduces flight
and ground spoilers and their relation to flight control, the
concept and purpose of elevator or stabilizer trim, and various
types of trim tabs.

• The longitudinal axis runs from nose to tail, and movement

about this axis is called roll. The lateral axis runs from
wingtip to wingtip, movement about this axis is called pitch.
The vertical axis runs vertically through the airplane,
movement about this axis is called yaw. The three axes
intersect at the center of gravity (CG). All aircraft movement
takes place as a rotation in 3 dimensions about the CG.
 PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS
There are three sets of primary flight controls.

• On the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtip is an aileron.

The ailerons move in opposite directions to bank the wings,
thereby rolling the aircraft left and right around the longitudinal
axis. For example, when the left aileron moves up, the right aileron
moves down, and the airplane rolls left wing down.
• An elevator is attached to the trailing edge of each horizontal
stabilizer. The elevator moves up and down to raise and lower the
nose of the airplane, rotating the airplane around the lateral axis.

When the aircraft flies, it appears to rotate about the CG. The CG is
also the point where the weight appears to be concentrated and
where the airplane balances.
PRIMARY FLIGHT CONTROLS
 AILERONS
• Ailerons rotate the airplane around the roll axis. This banks the wings,
dividing the lift into a vertical and horizontal component. Banking the
wings turns the airplane.
• The lowered aileron increases camber, lift, and drag; the raised aileron
decreases camber, lift and drag. The differences in drag cause the nose
of the airplane to yaw toward the outside of the turn. This yawing
effect is called aileron drag or adverse yaw.
• Some jet transports have both inboard and outboard ailerons. In this
case, both sets of ailerons are primary flight controls. The inboard
ailerons are usually located approximately behind the inboard or wing-
mounted engines and the outboard ailerons near the wingtip. The
inboard ailerons are used during both high-speed and low-speed flight.
• The outboard ailerons are used only during low-speed flight. They are
locked out during high-speed flight because the aerodynamic
loads created when they deflect cause undesirable twisting of the
wingtips.
 FLIGHT AND GROUND SPOILERS
• Most jet transports have flight spoilers on each wing which deflect
along with the ailerons to assist in controlling the aircraft. As
before, when the left aileron moves up, the right aileron moves
down and the airplane rolls left wing down. At the same time, the
left flight spoilers deflect up to assist the ailerons while the right
spoilers remain down.
• The flight spoilers may also be used as speed brakes in flight. In this
way, the flight spoilers reduce lift and increase drag without
increasing airspeed, thus helping the aircraft to descend more
rapidly at a constant airspeed.
• On the 737, each wing also has two ground spoilers. These surfaces
deflect upward in addition to the flight spoilers when the main
wheels touch down on landing. The combination of flight and
ground spoilers reduces lift upon landing. Spoiling the wing lift
helps prevent the airplane from bouncing back into the air and
improves the effectiveness of the wheel brakes.
 ELEVATORS
• The elevators control rotation around the pitch axis. Moving the
elevator up raises the nose of the aircraft, while moving it down
lowers the nose. The primary purpose of the elevators is to control
the angle of attack, thereby controlling the airspeed. Raising the
nose at any given airspeed increases the angle of attack, thus
increasing both lift and drag. The aircraft will gain altitude
momentarily, but the increase in drag will immediately begin to
reduce the airspeed. Without a change in power, the airplane
eventually stabilizes at an airspeed lower than the initial speed. The
initial power setting may be insufficient to maintain level flight.
• Pilots are taught that pitch plus power equals performance. This
statement means that airspeed is controlled by the pitch
attitude while power controls whether the airplane climbs, flies
level, or descends.
 RUDDER
• The rudder rotates the airplane around the yaw axis. It is important
to recognize that the rudder does not turn the airplane and is not
used for that purpose. The primary purpose of the rudder is to
counteract the effects of aileron drag (also known as adverse yaw).
As previously mentioned, when the ailerons are deflected to bank
the wings, the lowered aileron creates more drag than the raised
aileron. This tends to yaw the nose to the outside of the turn. The
rudder is applied in the direction of the turn to prevent the airplane
from yawing and to keep the fuselage streamlined with the relative
wind.
• Proper coordination of the ailerons and rudder when turning the
airplane prevents skidding out or slipping into the turn, thereby
improving the quality of the turn and reducing total drag.
 TRIM TABS
• Elevator trim tabs modify the downward tail load
at various airspeeds to eliminate flight control
pressures. This reduces pilot workload because
the pilot doesn’t have to constantly apply
pressure to hold a pitch attitude.
• Rudder trim tabs modify the tail side load to
eliminate flight control pressures particularly
during engine-out operations.
• Once set, the trim tabs remain fixed for all
elevator or rudder positions.
 STABILIZER TRIM
• Most jet transports have moveable horizontal
stabilizers. Trimming the stabilizer works like an
elevator trim tab but is more aerodynamically
efficient.
• Some aircraft have alignment stripes for ground
inspection. This allows the flight crew or
maintenance personnel to determine that the
stabilizer position matches the flight deck
position indication when the stabilizer position is
set to a predetermined value.
 CONTROL, SERVO, AND ANTI-SERVO TABS
• Control tabs may be used on some airplanes to move the primary flight
controls in the event that hydraulic power is lost. This is called manual
reversion. These control tabs are located at the trailing edge of the
primary flight controls and are operated manually by cables from the flight
deck controls. They move in a direction opposite that of the flight control
surface and are capable of positioning the primary surface by
aerodynamic forces.
• Like control tabs, servo tabs are located at the trailing edge of the primary
flight controls and are usually operated manually by cables from the flight
deck controls. Servo tabs move in a direction opposite that of the flight
control surface. They are designed to use aerodynamic forces to position
the primary control surface, thereby reducing the control forces in
airplanes without hydraulically powered controls.
• Anti-servo tabs are used to prevent a control surface from moving to a full-
deflection position due to aerodynamic forces. Anti-servo tabs move in
the same direction as the primary control surface to which they are
attached.
CONTROL, SERVO, AND ANTI-SERVO TABS
 HIGH LIFT DEVICES
• This section on high lift devices introduces several
types of leading edge devices and trailing edge flaps
and also explains their purpose and operation. High
lift devices may be attached to either the leading or
trailing edge of a wing. The primary purpose of all high
lift devices is to increase lift at low speeds. High lift
devices work by increasing the camber of the wing.
• Of the four types of flaps illustrated here, the Fowler
flap is the most common. Plain and Split flaps are very
old technology and not found on any modern large
airplanes. Jet transports use a combination of the
slotted and Fowler technologies.
HIGH LIFT DEVICES
 LEADING EDGE DEVICES
• Like trailing edge flaps, leading edge devices are primarily designed to
increase lift at low speeds by increasing the camber of the wing. They are
considered to be auxiliary flight controls.
• There are three principle types of leading edge devices: flaps, slats, and
slots. Leading edge flaps generally hinge forward and down from a point a
short distance behind the leading edge. In addition to increasing lift at low
speeds, they prevent flow separation during the landing flare prior to
touchdown.
• Leading edge slats are a moveable portion of the entire leading edge that
also move forward and down when extended. This not only increases wing
camber to increase lift, but creates a slot to direct high pressure air from
the lower surface over the upper surface to prevent flow separation at low
speeds.
• Leading edge slots are fixed openings a short distance behind the leading
edge. They are generally positioned forward of the ailerons and they affect
performance by increasing the stalling angle of attack and by ducting
high energy air into the upper surface boundary layer to delay flow
separation.
LEADING EDGE DEVICES

Leading Edge Flap

Leading Edge Slat

Leading Edge Slot

 AIRCRAFT ATTITUDE
• Stability is a critical aerodynamic concept
affecting all flight regimes. This section
introduces the two types of stability and
discusses their relationship to controlled flight.
• The attitude of an aircraft refers to its position in
space relative to a horizontal plane. An aircraft
may be said to have a level, nose up, or nose
down pitch attitude. It may also be said to have a
level, left wing up or down, or a right wing up or
down roll attitude. And finally, it may be yawed
either left or right.
 STABILITY
• Before you can fully understand aircraft stability, you need to
understand some general concepts and definitions about stability.
Newton’s Law of Inertia states that an object at rest tends to
remain at rest unless acted upon by an outside force. Stability, as a
concept, looks at what happens to an object when a force displaces
it from its resting place.
• There are three stability states that a system can assume: stable,
unstable, or neutral. A stable system will return to its original state
or position after a disturbing force is removed. An unstable
system will continue to diverge from its original position after it is
disturbed, even when the initial disturbing force is no longer
present. A neutrally stable system will diverge as long as a
disturbing force is applied but will remain in its last position when
the disturbing force ends or is removed.
 STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY
Static stability refers to the aircraft's initial response when
disturbed from a given angle of attack, slip, or bank. An
aircraft may exhibit positive static stability on any or all of
the axes.
• If the initial tendency is for the aircraft to return to the
original attitude once the controls are neutralized, the
aircraft displays positive static stability.
• If the attitude tends to move farther for its original position
after the controls are neutralized, the aircraft exhibits
negative static stability.
• If the aircraft pitch attitude remains in a new position after
the controls are released, it has neutral longitudinal static
stability.
 STATIC AND DYNAMIC STABILITY
• An aircraft can be flown successfully if it has positive static
longitudinal stability even if the dynamic stability is negative.
However, the pilot would find that contending with negative static
stability would be an impossible situation.
• Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft response over time when
disturbed from a given angle of attack, slip, or bank. Dynamic
longitudinal stability is a quality which makes an airplane stable
about its lateral axis. If an airplane is longitudinally stable, it has
positive dynamic longitudinal stability, any pitch oscillations will
tend to damp out over time, and the airplane will return to level
flight after a disturbance.
• If an airplane is longitudinally unstable, it has negative dynamic
longitudinal stability, and this means that over time the pitch
oscillations get larger. Eventually the aircraft would stall, if left
uncontrolled by the pilot. This is a very undesirable characteristic.
 CENTER OF GRAVITY
• The Center of Gravity (CG) is defined as the point
within the aircraft at which all the weight appears
to be concentrated. It is the point at which the
aircraft balances on all three axes; the 3 axes
intersect at the CG.
• When the aircraft moves about any axis, it
appears to pivot or rotate about the CG. The CG
must remain within a specific range relative to
the average chord.
 EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE FORWARD CG
• It is both illegal and unsafe to load an aircraft so that
the center of gravity falls outside the limits specified by
the manufacturer. An excessive forward CG makes it
more difficult to pitch the nose up for takeoff or during
the landing flare.
• Takeoff distance increases and it may be impossible to
raise the nose to initiate takeoff. Insufficient nose-up
rotation during landing may result in touchdown on the
nose wheel first. This may lead to directional control
problems or structural damage to the nose gear.
 EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE FORWARD CG
• The effects of an excessive aft center of gravity are
more dangerous than an excessive forward CG. In this
scenario, the aircraft becomes unstable in pitch
(unstable about the lateral axis). Stalling speed
decreases further and the aircraft is easier to stall or
spin. If stalled, it may be impossible to recover.
• As the CG and center of lift get closer together, the
aircraft becomes more difficult to control and will
require constant attention and continuous control
movements even in calm air. Rapid or excessive
rudder or elevator movements may overstress the
structure, causing damage or failure.
EFFECTS OF FORWARD/REARWARD CG
WITHIN LIMITS
The location of the CG relative to the limits
specified by the manufacturer affects the
aircraft’s performance and controllability.
A forward CG affects the aircraft in a number of
ways:
• Takeoff distance increases.
• Stalling speed increases.
• Drag and fuel consumption increase.
• Engine-out minimum controllable airspeed
decreases.
 EFFECTS OF FORWARD/REARWARD CG
WITHIN LIMITS
A rearward CG also affects the aircraft:
• Stalling Speed decreases.
• Drag and fuel consumption decrease.
• Cruising Speed increases.
• Engine-out minimum controllable airspeed
increases.
• Longitudinal stability decreases.
 CLIMBS
• The last section in Basic Aerodynamics discusses
climbing, turning, and Mach speed flight. The speed
at which the ratio of lift over drag is maximum
(L/Dmax) represents the speed at which the best rate
of climb is achieved and the least power is required to
maintain level flight.
• Increasing the pitch attitude at speeds greater than
L/Dmax will initially cause the aircraft to climb.
Increasing the pitch attitude at speeds less than
L/Dmax will cause the aircraft to slow down.
• Jet aircraft achieve their best rates of climb at speeds
greater than L/Dmax
 TURNING FLIGHT
In a level, coordinated turn with a constant airspeed:
• Increasing bank angle decreases the radius of turn and increases the rate
of the turn.
• Decreasing bank angle increases the radius of turn and decreases the rate
of the turn.
In a level, coordinated turn with a constant bank angle:
• Increasing airspeed decreases the rate of turn and increases the radius of
the turn.
• Decreasing airspeed increases the rate of turn and decreases the radius of
the turn.
• The load factor depends only on the angle of bank and is the same
regardless of airspeed for any given angle of bank.
To increase the rate of turn and decrease the radius at the same time, the
pilot must increase the bank angle and decrease the airspeed. As the
angle of bank increases, the vertical component of lift decreases and the
sink rate increases unless the angle of attack is increased.
 MACH SPEED FLIGHT
Mach 1 is the speed at which the speed of sound is reached. The
actual speed in knots varies with altitude and temperature.
Speed ranges:

• Subsonic – Below Mach 0.75

• Transonic – Mach 0.75 to 1.20
• Supersonic – Above Mach 1.20
• Hypersonic – Above about Mach 5.0

Critical Mach number is important because shock waves caused by

local supersonic flow greatly increase drag and can cause control
problems. Even when flying slower than the speed of sound, airflow
over parts of the wing can exceed Mach 1 and will adversely affect
performance if the Critical Mach Number is exceeded.
 MACH SPEED FLIGHT
Critical Mach number is the free stream airspeed at which the first indication
of sonic flow occurs and is the highest speed possible without supersonic
flow over a wing. It is increased significantly by sweeping the wings.

A swept-wing aircraft has a number of special characteristics:

• Shock induced airflow separation near the wing roots causes a severe
pitch down moment called Mach tuck or tuck under.
• A major disadvantage is that the wingtips tend to stall before the wing
roots.
• When the wingtips experience a shock-induced stall, the center of
pressure (center of lift) moves inward and forward. This makes the aircraft
less stable in pitch.
• Gusts can cause the aircraft to simultaneously roll in one direction and
yaw in the opposite direction. This is known as Dutch roll.
 END OF SLIDE

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