27th October 2015

MSE 3040, 3050, 3060: SCIENCE

TEACHING METHODS
AIMS FOR TEACHING SCIENCE 1

K. Nachiyunde (PhD)
 1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Aims are what you want to achieve, while, objectives are what
you will do to achieve them.
An objective is more specific in character, while an aim is more
abstract.
An objective is time-bound whereas an aim need not be.

Aim is setting a determined course in An objective is a more specific

order to achieve a set target. Aims are target set in order to achieve the
usually long term. goal. It must usually be completed
in a particular time limit.
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 1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

• An aim can be slightly vague.

• It can be a general statement.
• However, an objective must be as specific as it can be.
• E.g. an aim for a school would be to increase
performance. However, an objective would be to
increase pass rate by 10% within the next academic
year.
•
• Thus it can be said that an objective is SMART in
character.
• “SMART” stands for specific, measurable, attainable,
realistic and timely. However, an aim need not fit all
these categories. 3
 1.2.1 SMART OBJECTIVES

Let’s look at some more examples

• “Improve our student service.”

• “Achieve and maintain an average student
achievement rating of at least 4.0 (out of a possible 5.0)
on our annual survey by 11/12/14.”

• “Keep our department’s Website up-to-date.”

• “Solicit updates and new material for the Website from

our department managers on the first Friday of each
month; publish this new material by the following Friday.
Each time material is published, review the Website for
material that is out-of-date and delete or archive that
material.”
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 1.3 AIMS

• The very first thing to consider when planning a

learning experience is what exactly you intend your
students to learn (Waswa, 2013)
• Values and aims are quite inter related and
interdependent. We aim at a thing because we
value it. The values or advantages that we can
draw by achieving a thing become our purposes or
aims.
• These may be taken as the broader purposes or
goals or targets that can be anticipated through
the teaching of science (Kumar, 2004).

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 1.4 IMPORTANT AIMS OF SCIENCE
Kumar (2004) Association of science education – UK
To appreciate science as a human
Knowledge aim
activity
Practical aim To understand how science operates
Development of scientific To know and understand scientific
attitude concepts and principles.
Cultural aim To be able to be scientific
To relate scientific enquiry and actions
Social aim
to other modes of human behaviour.

Vocational aim
Utilization of leisure time
Psychological aim
Skill aim 6
 1.5 AIMS OF TEACHING SCIENCE

• Knowledge aim: should increase the knowledge of

the individual which should help him in
understanding himself and his environment
• Practical aim: apart from knowing facts and
principles, the learner should be able to use these
principles in understanding his environment
• Development of scientific attitude: should be
helpful in removing superstitions, false beliefs, wrong
notions and cultivate scientific attitude and science
related values.

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 1.6 AIMS OF TEACHING SCIENCE

• Cultural aim: science to be taught should i) help

grasp the progress in the field of science ii) apply it
for enhancement of our cultural heritage and
development of civilization and iii) appreciate the
study of science in the progress and development
of culture and civilization.
• Social aim: should inculcate social virtues among
the students for leading a well adjusted social life
and contributing significantly towards and progress
of society.

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 1.7 AIMS OF TEACHING SCIENCE

• Vocational aim: knowledge of BIO,CHE,PHY is

essential for almost all the professions and
vocations. To achieve the vocational aim we must
prepare our students for the different occupations
and vocational courses.
• Utilization of leisure time: the knowledge of science
should be useful to an individual to learn ways and
means utilizing his leisure time more fruitfully.

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 1.8 AIMS OF TEACHING SCIENCE

• Psychological aim: teaching of science to an

individual various opportunities for satisfying his
psychological needs and this help him grow and
develop as a well balanced individual
• Skill aim: the teaching of science should aim to
develop useful skills pertaining to scientific
observation, experimentation and practical use of
scientific facts and principles

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 2. CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF AIMS

• Usefulness: knowledge gained should be useful

• Fitness: the knowledge should fit into sequence that
leads the learner to broad objectives
• Appropriateness: the learning should be
appropriate for maturity and background of
students
• Practicability: experience required for development
of learning should be possible

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 2.1 AIMS OF SCIENCE CURRICULUM
SHOULD BE:
• To make pupils interested in science
• To familiarize the students with important role
played by science in their life
• To develop in students a scientific culture
• To provide a training to students in methods of
science
• To emphasize upon students the role of science on
social behavior
• To prepare students for those vocations which
require a sound knowledge of science
• To increase students understanding to such a level
that he can understand various concepts and
theories which unify various branches of science 12
 3. GENERAL AIMS
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, SCIENCE, VOCATIONAL TRAINING AND EARLY
EDUCATION (MOESVTEE)

1.provide, through well designed studies of experimental and practical

science, a worthwhile educational experience for all learners,
whether or not they go on to study science beyond this level and, in
particular, to enable them to acquire sufficient understanding and
knowledge to:
1.1 become confident citizens in a technological world, able to take or develop an
informed interest in matters of scientific import;
1.2 recognise the usefulness, and limitations, of scientific method and to
appreciate its applicability in other disciplines and in everyday life;
1.3 be suitably prepared for studies beyond Senior Secondary School level in
science, in applied Sciences or in Science dependent vocational courses.
2. stimulate learners and create and sustain their interest in and
enjoyment of science.

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 3.1 GENERAL AIMS
(MOESVTEE)

3. develop abilities and skills that:

3.1 are relevant to the study and practice of science;
3.2 are useful in everyday life;
3.3 encourage efficient and safe practice;
3.4 encourage effective communication.
4.develop attitudes relevant to science such as:
4.1 concern for accuracy and precision;
4.2 objectivity;
4.3 integrity.

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 3.2 GENERAL AIMS
(MOESVTEE)

5. assist the development of:

5.1 the skills of:
(i)enquiry;
(ii)initiative;
(iii)inventiveness.
6. stimulate interest in and care for the local and global environment.

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 3.3 GENERAL AIMS
(MOESVTEE)

7. promote an awareness that:

7.1 scientific theories and methods have developed, and continue to do so as a
result of co-operative activities of groups and individuals;
7.2 the study and practice of science is subject to social economic, technological,
ethnical and cultural influences and limitations;
7.3 the applications of science may be both beneficial and detrimental to the
individual, the community and the environment;
7.4 science transcends national boundaries and that language of science correctly
and rigorously applied, is universal.

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 4. OBJECTIVES

• Are the ways and means of achieving the aims in a

more practical way
• Objectives are specific and precise behavioral
outcome of teaching a particular topic in science
• Characteristics of a good objective are
 It should be specific and precise
 It should be attainable

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 4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVE

• A learning objective answers the question: What is it

that your students should be able to do at the end
of the class session and course that they could not
do before?
• A learning objective makes clear the intended
learning outcome rather than what form the
instruction will take.
• Learning objectives focus on student performance.
Action verbs that are specific, such as list, describe,
report, compare, demonstrate, and analyze, should
state the behaviors students will be expected to
perform.
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 4.2 CATEGORIES OF LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
• Cognitive objectives emphasize knowing,
conceptualizing, comprehending, applying, synthesizing,
and evaluating.
• Psychomotor objectives involve the physical skills and
dexterity related to the instruction. Successful instruction
involves teaching new skills or coordination of old ones
• Affective objectives are those that are concerned with
aspects such as attitudes, interest in the subject, values
and development of appreciation for a subject. The
following are examples of affective objectives:
• when given a choice to study R.E or science, the
pupil chooses to study science
• the pupil justifies the value of taking science to other
pupils

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4.3 COMPONENTS OF AN OBJECTIVE

• Objectives are written in observable behavioral term

and are therefore known as behavioral objectives.
• Should have three parts, namely: the condition
statement, performance term and the qualifying term.
• The condition statement gives the condition under which
the required performance (behavior) is to be carried
out. In majority of cases, it states what will be available
to the learner in order to carry out the task. e.g. Given a
beaker, the learner should be able to... The condition
statement is also known as the testing situation.

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4.4 COMPONENTS OF AN OBJECTIVE

• The performance term (outcome statement or

terminal behavior): is a part of the objective which
states what the learner must be able to do or
perform after instruction/lesson. e.g. the pupil
should be able to state the meaning of the term
diffusion.
• The qualifying term (‘evaluation statement’ or
‘criteria’): is the part of an objective which states
the acceptable level of attainment of the
performance term e.g. Using a burette, the learner
should be able to measure the volume of an acidic
solution to an accuracy of 0.1cm3.

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 4.5 COMPONENTS OF AN OBJECTIVE -
SUMMARY
• Important to write objectives with three parts as illustrated
• Not always necessary to include all three parts in every
objective one writes for a lesson
• Objective should communicate the intended learning
outcome as clearly as possible
• Reece and Walker (1997) give the following guidelines:
• action verbs must be used to express the outcome or
desired student behavior
• objectives must be stated in terms of the learning outcome
(product) and not in terms of the learning process; they
should describe what a learner should be able to do after
instruction.
• objectives must be expressed in terms of learner or pupil
performance and not in terms of teacher performance.
• An objective should express only one desired behavior
(learning outcome).
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 4.6 CHARACTERISTIC OF LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
• Learning objectives emphasize observed activity
• e.g. the student will write 3 properties of acids.
• Learning objectives emphasize student activity
e.g Given the necessary materials, the student will
determine the pH of an unknown solution.
• Learning objectives emphasize student outcomes
• Given a list of chemical compounds, the student will
select 1 that is found at each step in the process of
respiration and 1 that is found at each step in the
process of photosynthesis.
• Instead of… The student will understand the
fundamentals of respiration.

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4.7 ADVANTAGES OF USING LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
• Planning instruction: Once you have developed
learning objectives for a course you can more
rationally sequence instruction, allot time to topics,
assemble materials, prepare outlines and booklists.
• Facilitating evaluation: Learning objectives can
facilitate various evaluation activities, evaluating
students, evaluating instruction, evaluating the
curriculum.
• Aiding in communication with others: There is a
need to communicate learning objectives to others:
between instructor and student, with other
instructors.

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4.8 ADVANTAGES OF USING LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
• Improving instruction: If you intend to improve
instruction in a particular lesson or course, you
usually begin with the learning objectives for that
lesson or course.
• Producing new insights: The process of clarifying
objectives may produce major changes in those
who engage in the effort.

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4.9 ADVANTAGES OF USING LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
• they enable a teacher select appropriate content
i.e. the subject matter (knowledge, skills, attitudes
and values) that they should teach to pupils.
• they provide direction to the teacher when
selecting or designing appropriate learning
experiences (methods used to help pupils learn).
• they provide teacher’s direction required for
organising and sequencing of content and learning
experiences.

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 4.10 ADVANTAGES OF USING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• they serve as a basis for selecting teaching and
learning resources by the teacher.
• They provide direction when evaluating the
effectiveness of the lesson or programme.
• They provide clear targets towards which teachers
and learners can work.
• They encourage teachers to think and plan their
work.
• They also provide a basis for marking and reporting
of pupils performance.

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 4.11 LIMITATIONS OF OBJECTIVES

Imenda (1982) gives the following criticisms of objectives

• They limit learning of other aspects by pupils i.e. pupils
will be confining themselves to learning of what is
specified by the objectives which have been pre-
determined by the teacher.
• There is a tendency by some teachers to concentrate
on behavioural (overt) learning outcomes at the
expense of non-observable learning outcomes which
might be more important.
• They are difficult to formulate for every learning situation
especially as the learning material becomes more
advanced.
• They consume a lot of time for the teacher to construct.
• They may not help to achieve over all aims
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 LIMITATIONS OF OBJECTIVES
McKernan (2010) argues that
• Objectives do not exist in reality
• Educators are asked to accept objectives uncritically
• Objectives reduce education to an instrumental-utilitarian activity:
taking a means to an end
• Breaking education down into targets is destructive of the
epistemology of disciplines/subjects
• Objectives are often stated as low-level trivial recall items
• Predetermination prevents ‘teachable’ moments and pursuing inquiries
thrown up by the teaching/learning process
• It is not democratic to set targets in advance of instruction
• Objectives represent poor models of teacher-student interaction
• Empirically speaking, teachers do not plan by starting the curriculum
with objectives
• The limits of discourse act as a constraint on objectives
• Objectives are often perceived as having equal value when in fact
some are of greater importance and of varying classificational
significance
• Unanticipated outcomes are always being achieved and sometimes
they are the most valuable results 29
5. WRITING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
USING BLOOM'S TAXONOMY

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5.1 WRITING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
USING BLOOM'S TAXONOMY

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5.2 BLOOM'S REVISED TAXONOMY

High-level cognitive skills

low-level cognitive skills 32

 5.3 THE TAXONOMY TABLE
Major Types and Subtypes Examples
A. Factual Knowledge: The basic elements students must know to be
acquainted with a discipline or
solve problems in it
AA. Knowledge of terminology Technical vocabulary, chemical
symbols
AB. Knowledge of specific details and Major natural resources, reliable
elements sources of information
B. Conceptual Knowledge: The interrelationships among the basic elements
within a larger structure that enable them to function together

BA. Knowledge of classifications and Periods of geological time

categories
BB. Knowledge of principles and Pythagorean theorem, law of supply
generalizations and demand
BC. Knowledge of theories, models, Theory of evolution, structure of the33
and structures cell
 5.4 THE TAXONOMY TABLE
C. Procedural Knowledge: How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using skills,
algorithms, techniques, and methods
CA. Knowledge of subject-specific skills and Skills used in painting with water colours, whole-
algorithms number division algorithm
CB. Knowledge of subject-specific techniques Interviewing techniques, scientific method
and methods
CC. Knowledge of criteria for determining when Criteria used to determine when to apply a
to use appropriate procedures procedure involving Newton’s second law,
criteria used to judge the feasibility of using a
particular method to estimate business costs

D. Metacognitive Knowledge: Knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and

knowledge of one’s own cognition
DA. Strategic Knowledge Knowledge of outlining as a means of capturing
the structure of a unit of subject matter in a text
book, knowledge of the use of heuristics

DB. Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including
appropriate contextual and conditional
knowledge
DC. Self-knowledge
Adapted from Anderson et al. (2001)
Knowledge of the types of tests particular
teachers administer, knowledge of the cognitive
demands of different tasks
Knowledge that critiquing essays is a personal
strength,
whereas writing essays is a personal weakness;
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awareness of one’s own knowledge level
 5.5 THE TAXONOMY TABLE
The The cognitive process dimension
knowledge 1.Remember 2. Understand 3. Apply 4. Analyse 5. Evaluate 6. Create
dimension
A.
Factual
Knowledge

B. Objective 5 Objective 4 Objective 3 Objective 7

Conceptual Objective 2
Knowledge

C. Objective 1 Objective 6
Procedural
Knowledge

D.
Meta-
cognitive
knowledge
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 5.6 TAXONOMY FRAMEWORK

• A statement of an objective contains a verb and a

noun.
• The verb generally describes the intended cognitive
process.
• The noun generally describes the knowledge pupils
are expected to acquire or construct. Consider the
following example:
• "The student will learn to differentiate among
acids, bases and salts of various compounds
(the knowledge)."
 5.7 TAXONOMY FRAMEWORK

• In contrast with the single dimension of the original

Blooms' Taxonomy, the revised framework is two
dimensional.
• It takes care of learning objectives by showing
cognitive and knowledge dimensions as shown by
the model developed by Rex Heer in the next slide.
5.8 TAXONOMY FRAMEWORK

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 5.9 TAXONOMY FRAMEWORK

• The relationship between the knowledge dimension

and the cognitive process is what is referred to as
the Taxonomy Table.
• The continuum underlying the cognitive process
dimension is assumed to be cognitive complexity;
that is,
• Understand is believed to be more cognitively
complex than Remember, Apply is believed to
be more cognitively complex than Understand,
and so on.
 5.10 TAXONOMY FRAMEWORK

• The knowledge dimension contains four categories:

Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, and
Metacognitive.
• The Conceptual and Procedural categories overlap
in terms of abstractness, with some procedural
knowledge being more concrete than most
abstract conceptual knowledge.
 5.11 TAXONOMY FRAMEWORK

• To appreciate how the Taxonomy Table helps us

understand objectives, consider the aforementioned
objective regarding types of compounds.
• The verb "differentiate" provides clues to the desired
cognitive process.
• Differentiate, as shown in Slide 43, is associated with the
cognitive process category Analyse.
• The noun phrase "acids, bases and salts of various
compounds" gives clues to the desired type of
knowledge. "Various compounds" signify Conceptual
knowledge. In terms of the Taxonomy Table, then, the
objective involves Analyse and Conceptual knowledge.
 5.12 TAXONOMY FRAMEWORK

• you will realise that differentiating is a cognitive

process associated with Analyse.
• In, fact differentiating involves distinguishing the
parts of a whole structure in terms of their
relevance.
• In the objective considered, the whole structure is
"various compounds." The parts are acids, bases
and salts and they differ in a number of ways. The
question is What are the most important or relevant
differences?
• Placing an objective into this framework increases
our understanding of a particular objective.
Metacognitive Identify Predict Use Deconstruct Reflect Create
Knowledge of cognition strategies for one’s response to techniques one’s biases. on one’s progress. an innovative
in general as well as retaining culture shock. that match learning portfolio.
awareness and information. one’s strengths.
knowledge of one's
cognition

Procedural Recall Clarify Carry out Integrate Judge Design

How to do something, how to perform assembly pH tests of compliance with efficiency of an efficient project
methods of inquiry, and CPR. instructions. water regulations. sampling workflow.
criteria for using skills, samples techniques.
algorithms, techniques,
and methods

Conceptual Recognize Classify Provide Differentiate Determine Assemble

The interrelationships symptoms of adhesives by advice to high and low relevance of a team of experts.
among the basic exhaustion. toxicity. novices. culture. results.
elements within a larger
structure that enable
them to function together

Factual List Summarize Respond Select Check Generate

The basic elements primary and features of a new to frequently the most for consistency a log of daily
students must know to be secondary product. asked complete list of among pH values school
acquainted with a colours. questions. activities. sources. tap water.
discipline or solve
problems in it

Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create

Retrieve construct Carry out or Break material Make judgement Put elements
relevant meaning from use a into constituent based on criteria together to form a
knowledge for instructional procedure in a parts and and standards coherent whole;
long term messages, given situation determine how reorganise into a
memory including oral parts relate to new pattern or
written and one another and structure
graphical to an overall 43
communication structure or
 5.14 REMEMBERING

• Recognizes students’ ability to use rote

memorization and recall certain facts.
• Action verbs to help write objectives or exam
questions for this domain: cite, define, identify,
label, list, match, name, recognize, reproduce,
select, state

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 5.15 REMEMBERING

Learning objectives Exam examinations

The students will recall the four Name the four major types of
major types of oxides without oxides.
error.
The students will list at least List three characteristics that
three characteristics peculiar to are unique to alkali metals.
alkali metals.
The students will be able to Define a molecule.
define a molecule.

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 5.16 UNDERSTANDING

• Involves students’ ability to read course content,

understand and interpret important information and
put other’s ideas into their own words.
• Action verbs to help write objectives or exam
questions for this domain: classify, convert, describe,
distinguish between, explain, extend, give
examples, illustrate, interpret, paraphrase,
summarize, translate.

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 5.17 UNDERSTANDING
Learning objectives Exam examinations
The students will summarize the Summarize the chemical reaction during
steps in the Haber process during the manufacture of ammonia using the
the manufacturing of ammonia. Haber process.
The students will describe in text Given a graph of oxygen production with
what is shown in graph form. time, describe what the graph represents
at t = 0 and t = 2 minutes.
From a “story-problem” description Konkola Copper Mines smelter emit two
of nitrogen dioxide, students will tons of nitrogen dioxide per hour. If the
convert the story to a mathematical emission has made the nearby river to
manipulation needed to solve the have reduced PH from the natural levels
problem. of 7.5 to 5, what is the concentration of H+
in the river?

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 5.18 APPLYING

• Students take new concepts and apply them to

another situation.
• Action verbs to help write objectives or exam
questions for this domain: apply, arrange, compute,
construct, demonstrate, discover, modify, operate,
predict, prepare, produce, relate, show, solve, use.

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 5.19 APPLYING
Learning objectives
The students will calculate mole
concept calculations with 90
percent accuracy.
The students will apply previously
learned information about
preparation of sulphuric acid to
reach an answer about formation
of acid rains from SO2 emission.
The students will demonstrate the
principle of Le Chatelier to the
preparation of ammonia.
Exam examinations
Solve for the ten following mole
concept problems. Please make
sure to show all your work.
Outline the steps involved in the
formation of acid rains?
Demonstrate the principle of Le
Chatelier during the manufacture
of ammonia and explain how
yields can be increased
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 5.20 ANALYSING

• Students have the ability to take new information

and break it down into parts to differentiate
between them.
• Action verbs to help write objectives or exam
questions for this domain: analyze, associate,
determine, diagram, differentiate, discriminate,
distinguish, estimate, infer, order, outline, point out,
separate, subdivide.

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 5.21 ANALYSING
Learning objectives Exam examinations
The students will read a From the short environmentalists’
environmentalists debate and point debate transcribed below:
out the passages that attribute Differentiate the passages that
pollution to mining activities rather attributed pollution to mining
natural cause. activities, and those that attributed
it to natural causes.
The students will point out the From the argument given below,
positive and negative points analyze the positive and negative
regarding recycling. issues about recycling of waste
products such as PET bottles
Students will discriminate among a Determine which of the following
list of possible steps for preparation preparative methods would most
of hydrogen to determine which likely lead to highest hydrogen yields
one(s) would lead to increased at minimum cost.
yields at the lowest cost.

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 5.22 EVALUATING

• Involves students’ ability to look at someone else’s

ideas or principles and see the worth of the work
and the value of the conclusions.
• Action verbs to help write objectives or exam
questions for this domain: appraise, assess,
compare, conclude, contrast, criticize, discriminate,
evaluate, judge, justify, support, weigh.

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 5.23 EVALUATING
Learning objectives
The students will use the idea of
surface area to evaluate rates
reactions of the same substance in
big lumps and fine powder .
Given a research study about copper
content in an ore in Mufulira town,
students will evaluate the
appropriateness of continued mining
activities
The students will compare two solids,
giving reasons for their evaluation of
one solid to be metal and the other a
non metal.
Exam examinations
Using the basic idea of surface area,
evaluate the rate of dissolution of
sugar in big lumps and fine powder
Mining activities are heavily depended on
the yield of pure copper from a given ore.
It the copper content is less than 1% , the
mine risks going bankrupt. Given the results
of a research about the copper content in
the ore evaluate the decision made by
the mining company to retrench 1000
workers
Two pieces of sculpture from different eras
and artists are displayed. Study these two
pieces, use the compare-contrast method
to determine which piece you think is a
metal and which one is non metal. Utilize
the skills you have learned as we have
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studied properties of metals.
 5.24 CREATING

• Students are able to take various pieces of

information and form a whole creating a pattern
where one did not previously exist.
• Action verbs to help write objectives or exam
questions for this domain: combine, compile,
compose, construct, create, design, develop,
devise, formulate, integrate, modify, organize, plan,
propose, rearrange, reorganize, revise, rewrite, tell,
write.

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 5.25 CREATING
Learning objectives
The students will produce an
environmental policy for their
school.
After studying the preparation of
pentanoic acid from 1-hexene,
student groups will design their own
method for preparing octanoic
acid.
The students will design a series of
chemical operations to separate
quantitatively the elements in a
solution.
Exam examinations
Develop one plausible
environmental policy for
managing waste generated within
your school and community.
Working in your groups and
considering the preparation of
organic acids from unsaturated
hydrocarbons. Design a method,
stating clearly the stating
compound, for preparing
decanoic acid
In the lab, you will be given a
solution to analyze to see what
elements make up the solution.
Then design a series of chemical
operations to separate
quantitatively the elements in the 55
solution.
 REFERENCES

• Kumar, K. S. (2004). Methods Of Teaching science.

Discovery Publishing House.
• Mager, F.R., 1962. Preparing instructional Objectives, San
Francisco: Fearon Publishers.
• McKernan, J. (2010). A Critique of Instructional objectives.
Educational inquiry 1(1): 57-67.
• Reece, I. and S. Walker., 1997. Teaching, Training and
Learning: A Practical Guide, Sunderland: Business
Education Publisher.
• Waswa, K. N. P (2013). Quality of Planning and Objective
Setting by Teachers of Organic science in Kenya. Journal
of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy
Studies (JETERAPS) 4(2): 293-301.
• http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html

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