5 - Pressure Drop Calculations

Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop Analysis
P. R. Dhamangaonkar
Ref: Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Design,

By Ramesh K. Shah and Dušan P. Sekulic
Department of Mechanical Engineering

College of Engineering, Pune (COEP)
1
Forerunners in Technical Education
• Fluids need to be pumped through the heat exchanger inmost
applications.
• The fluid pumping power is proportional to the fluid pressure drop,
which is associated with fluid friction and other pressure drop
contributions along the fluid flow path.
• The fluid pressure drop has a direct relationship with exchanger heat
transfer, operation, size, mechanical characteristics, and other factors,
including economic considerations.

2
Importance of Pressure Drop
The determination of pressure dropΔp in a heat exchanger is essential

for many applications
• This pumping power is proportional to the exchanger pressure drop
• Saturation temperature changes with changes in saturation pressure
and in turn affects the temperature potential for heat transfer.
Let us first determine the relative importance of the fluid pumping
power P for gas flow vs. liquid flow in a heat exchanger.
P is proportional to Δp in a heat exchanger and is given by

3
Let us first determine the relative importance of the fluid pumping
power P for gas flow vs. liquid flow in a heat exchanger.
P is proportional to Δp in a heat exchanger and is given by
Where is the is volumetric flow rate and ηp is the pump/fan

efficiency.
G= core mass velocity=ρum
Ao= minimum free flow area
and f is the friction factor0

4
Where f=0.046 Re-0.2 for fully developed turbulent flow
If the flow rate and flow passage geometry are given, to determine the
order of magnitude for the fluid pumping power requirement for gas
vs. liquid flow , it is evident that
Dependence of Power

5
Fluid Pumping Devices
The most common fluid pumping devices are fans, pumps, and
compressors.
A fan is a low-pressure air- or gas-moving device, which uses rotary
motion.
There are two major types of fans: depending on the direction of flow
through the device.
Fans may be categorized as blowers and exhausters.
A pump is a device used to move or compress liquids.
A compressor is a high-volume centrifugal device capable of
compressing gases
Blower: (500 Pa or 2.0 in. H2O)
Compressor: 100 to 1500 kPa (15 to 220 psi) and higher

6
Fans and pumps are volumetric devices and are commonly used to
pump fluids through heat exchangers.
This means that a fan will develop the same dynamic head [pressure
rise per unit fluid (gas) weight across the fanj6] at a given capacity
(volumetric flow rate) regardless of the fluids handled, with all other
conditions being equal.
The head, dynamic head or velocity head is referred to as the kinetic
energy per unit weight of the fluid pumped, expressed in units of
millimeters or inches (feet).
Thus the pressure rise across a fan (which is mainly consumed as the
pressure drop across a heat exchanger) can be expressed in terms of
the head H as follows:

7
Major Contributions to the Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop
The pressure drop associated with a heat exchanger is considered as a
sum of two major contributions:
• pressure drop associated with the core or matrix,
• pressure drop associated with fluid distribution devices
Ideally most of the pressure drop available should be utilized in the
core and a small fraction in the manifolds, headers, or other flow
distribution devices.
But for plate heat exchangers and other heat exchangers the pressure
drop associated with manifolds, headers, nozzles, and so on, may not
be a small fraction of the total available pressure drop.
If core pressure drop > manifold and header pressure drops,
relatively uniform flow distribution through the core is obtained.

8
The flow distribution through the core is uniform.
The core pressure drop is determined separately on each fluid side.
(1) frictional losses associated with fluid flow over the heat transfer
surface (this usually consists of skin friction plus form drag),
(2) momentum effect (pressure drop or rise due to the fluid density
changes in the core),
(3) pressure drop associated with sudden con-traction and expansion
at the core inlet and outlet, and
(4) gravity effect due to the change in elevation between the inlet and
outlet of the exchanger. (negligible for gases)

9
For vertical liquid flow through the exchanger, the pressure drop or
rise due to the elevation change is given by
Where,
- the ‘‘+’’ sign denotes vertical up flow (i.e., pressure drop),
- the ‘‘-’’ sign denotes vertical down flow (i.e., pressure rise or
recovery),
-‘g‘ is gravitational acceleration,
- L is the exchanger length,
- ρm is the mean fluid mass density calculated at bulk temperature and
mean pressure between the two points.

10
Assumptions for Pressure Drop Analysis
1. Flow is steady and isothermal, and fluid properties are independent of
time.
2. Fluid density is dependent on the local temperature only or is treated as
a constant (inlet and exit densities are separately constant).
3. The pressure at a point in the fluid is independent of direction. If a
shear stress is present, the pressure is defined as the average of normal
stresses at the point.
4. Body forces are caused only by gravity (i.e., magnetic, electrical, and
other fields do not contribute to the body forces).
5. If the flow is not irrotational, the Bernoulli equation is valid only along
a stream-line.
6. There are no energy sinks or sources along a streamline; flow stream
mechanical energy dissipation is idealized as zero.
7. The friction factor is considered as constant with passage flow length.

11
Extended Surface Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop
Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers
Δp=Δp1-2 +Δp2-3 –Δp3-4
TheΔp1-2 is the pressure drop at the

core entrance due to sudden
contraction,
TheΔp2-3 is the pressure drop with in the core and referred as core
pressure drop.
TheΔp3-4 is the pressure rise at the core exit.

12
Core Pressure Drop.
The pressure drop within the core:
(1) the pressure loss caused by fluid friction,
(2) the pressure change due to the momentum
rate change in the core.
Consider a differential element of flow length dx in the core
Considering Various force and momentum rate terms in and out of
this element
τw is the effective wall shear stress due to skin friction, form drag, and
internal contractions and expansions, if any.
P is the wetted perimeter of the fluid flow passages
13
Rearranging and simplifying
Fanning friction factor f is the ratio of wall shear stress τw to the flow
kinetic energy per unit volume.

14
Force and momentum rate terms for a differential element of a heat exchanger core
• While τwPdx is shown acting on both top and bottom surface in

reality it acts along the entire surface Pdx
• τw is dependent on the flow passage geometry and size, fluid velocity,
fluid density and viscosity, and surface roughness, if any
• The minimum free-flow area Ao is constant in most heat exchangers
• The friction factor, f , is derived experimentally for a surface or
derived theoretically for laminar flow and simple geometries

15
τw = the effective wall shear stress
ρ = fluid mass density determined at the local bulk temperature and
mean pressure
rh = fluid mass density determined at the local bulk temperature and
mean pressure
= (Ao /P)
Dh = hydraulic diameter = 4rh
Using d(1/ρ)= -(1/ρ2)

16
Integrating from x=0 (ρ=ρi , p=p2) to x=L (ρ=ρo , p=p3)
Where mean specific volume
For a liquid with any flow arrangement, or for an ideal gas with C*=1
and any flow arrangement except for parallel flow,
v = the specific volume in m3/kg

17
In general,
(1/ρ)m ≈(1/ρm) is a good approximation for liquids with very minor

changes in density with temperatures and small changes in pressure.
For a perfect gas with C*=0 and any exchanger flow arrangement,

18
The core pressure drop has two contributions:
1. The first term represents the momentum rate change or the flow
acceleration (deceleration) effects due to the fluid heating
(cooling);
- Its positive value represents a pressure drop for flow acceleration
and the negative value a pressure rise for flow deceleration.
2. The second term represents the frictional losses and is the
dominating term for Δp.

19
Core Entrance Pressure Drop
The core entrance pressure drop consists of two contributions:
(1) the pressure drop due to the flow area change, and
(2) the pressure losses associated with free expansion that follow
sudden contraction.
Assumption:
The temperature change at the entrance is small and that the fluid
velocity is small compared to the velocity of sound. Thus the fluid is
treated as incompressible.
The pressure drop at the entrance due to the area change alone, for a
frictionless incompressible fluid, is given by the Bernoulli equation.

20
Where ρi is the fluid density at the core inlet and ρi =ρ1 =ρ2 and ρ’2 is
the hypothetical static pressure at section 2 if the pressure drop would
have been alone due to the area change.
The continuity equation gives, ρi A0,1 u1 =ρi A0,2 u2
Let,

21
the pressure drop at the core entrance due to the area change alone,
The second contribution to the pressure drop at the entrance is due to

the losses associated with irreversible free expansion that follows the
sudden contraction.
Pressure drop due to these losses= contraction loss coefficient Kc(x)
the dynamic velocity head at the
core inlet
Kc is a function of the contraction ratio σ, Reynolds number Re, and flow cross-
sectional geometry.

22
Entrance and exit pressure loss
coefficients for
(a) a multiple circular tube core,
(b) multiple-tube flat-tube core,
(c) multiple square tube core, and
(d) multiple triangular tube core
with abrupt contraction (entrance)
and abrupt expansion (exit).
(From Kays and London, 1998.)

23
Kc is made up of two contributions:
1. irreversible expansion after the vena contracta and
2. the momentum rate change due to a partially or fully developed
velocity profile just downstream of the vena contracta.

24
Core Exit Pressure Rise
The core exit pressure rise (p4-p3) is divided into two contributions
1. the pressure rise due to the deceleration associated with an area
increase
2. The pressure loss associated with the irreversible free expansion
and momentum rate changes following an abrupt expansion
The first contribution
The second contribution
The exit loss coefficient Ke is based on the dynamic velocity head at the core outlet. It
is function of function of the expansion ratio, the Reynolds number and the flow
cross-sectional geometry.
25
26
The definition of Ke considers two effects:
(1) Pressure loss due to the irreversible free expansion at the core exit,
and
(2) Pressure rise due to the momentum rate changes, considering
partially or fully developed velocity profile at the core exit and
uniform velocity profile far downstream at section 4
Hence, the magnitude of Ke will be positive or negative,

27
Total Core Pressure Drop.
The total core pressure drop on one fluid side of a plate-fin exchanger
is given by :
Δp = Δp1-2+Δp2-3-Δp3-4

28
The core frictional pressure drop, being the major contribution in the
total core pressure drop may be approximated as follows in different
forms:
Corresponding fluid pumping power P is

29
Tube-Fin Heat Exchangers
Tube Inside: The pressure drop inside the tubes is determined in the
same manner as that for plate-fin surfaces,
Appropriate values of the f factor and Kc and Ke are used in this

expression for flow inside the tubes with or without fins.

30
Tube Outside with Fins.
The three types of fins on tubes are:

1. normal fins on individual tubes,
2. longitudinal fins on individual tubes,
3. flat fins on an array of tubes.

31
(1)An individually finned tube exchanger or
simply a finned tube exchanger
(2) a tube-fin exchanger having flat

(continuous) fins
(3) longitudinal fins on individual tubes,

32
Tube Outside with Fins
For the first two type of finned
tubes, the tube outside flow in each
tube row experiences a contraction
and an expansion.
(a) Individually finned tubes(circular/longitudinal);
(b) flat (continuous) fins on an array of tubes.
The pressure losses associated with a tube row within the core are of
the same order of magnitude as those at the entrance with the first tube
row and those at the exit with the last tube row.
Consequently, the entrance and exit pressure drops are not calculated
separately, but they are generally lumped into the friction factor for
individually finned tubes and longitudinally finned tubes.

33
the total pressure drop associated with the core,
where the friction factor is based on the hydraulic diameter

For flow over a tube bank, the skin friction contribution to the
pressure drop may not be major, and no unique flow length can be
defined for Δp to be proportional to L. For such geometries, the
pressure drop is presented in terms of an average Euler number Eu
per tube row instead of the friction factor f:

35
The pressure drop correlation in terms of an average Euler number Eu
per tube row is:
Where Nr represents the number of tube rows.
entrance and exit pressure losses are effectively lumped into the
friction factor f by eliminating them from the Δp equation

36
For flat fins on an array of tubes, the components of the total core
pressure drop on the fin side are all the same as those for plate-fin
surfaces. The only difference is that the flow area at the entrance and
exit is between the fins and is independent of the tube arrangement.
Let us find the entrance and exit losses based on the flow area at the
leading edge,
Applying the continuity equation:
G’σ’=Gσ
Kc and Ke are evaluated for σ’ from standard Fig.
37
The total pressure drop for this geometry (flat fins on an array of
tubes) is given by:

38
Tubular Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop
Tube Banks:
The pressure drop on the tube side is determined . The pressure drop
associated with flow over the tube banks consists of the same
contributions as that for the plate-fin exchanger, except that the
entrance and exit pressure drops are included in the friction factors.
Hence, the total pressure drop on the outside of a tube bank is
1   '2
 Kc 

39
Shell-and-Tube Exchangers
Tube Side
in shell-and-tube exchangers, the entrance and exit pressure drops for
the tube flow are generally neglected since their contribution is small
compared to the losses associated with inlet and outlet nozzles and
chambers.
If U-tubes or hairpins are used in a multipass unit, additional

pressure drop due to the 180 bend needs to be included.

40
Shell Side:
The presence of bypass and leakage streams in addition to the cross flow
stream.
In this case, the pressure drop is evaluated first for an ideal cross flow
section and an ideal window section.
Correction factors are then applied for the leakage and bypass streams.
The total pressure drop is then the sum of the pressure drops for each
window section and each cross flow section,

41
The pressure drop associated with liquid flow in an ideal cross flow
section between two baffles
where
where Nr,cc is the number of effective tube rows crossed during flow
through one cross-flow section;
Gc is the cross flow mass velocity,
The viscosity correction factor is considered only for liquids. Replace this term with (Tw/Tm) m
for a gas on the shell side.

42
43
μ is the liquid viscosity evaluated at the tube wall (w) or bulk/mean
(m) temperatures;
and Hg is the Hagen Number per tube row.
Where Red =(ρum do )/μ

the Hagen number is an alternative to a friction factor or an Euler
number to represent the dimensionless pressure drop, and it is an
average value per tube row for flow normal to a tube bundle.

44
The pressure drop associated with an ideal one-window-section Δpw,i
•depends on the shell-side Reynolds number

• uc is evaluated at or near the shell centerline in one cross flow
section
Where pt is the tube pitch,
Nw is the number of effective cross flow tube rows in each window,
Lb is the baffle spacing, and Dh,w (the hydraulic diameter of the
window section)
45
Where m(dot) is the total shell-side flow rate,
Ao,cr & Ao,w are the flow areas for the cross flow and window
sections respectively,
uc and uw are the ideal cross flow and window mean velocities,
And θb is in degrees.
The ρs = ρm is the mean density of the shell-side fluid.

46
The combined pressure drop associated with the inlet and outlet
sections on the shell side is given by

47
The total pressure drop on the shell side is the sum of the pressure drop
associated with each cross flow section between baffles, the pressure
drop associated with each window section, and the pressure drop for
cross flow sections on each end between the first (and last) baffle and
the tubesheet.
Since the Δpb,id, Δpw,id, and Δpi-o are for ideal conditions, they must be
corrected for the presence of the bypass and leakage streams.
The total pressure drop on the shell side, excluding the Δp associated
with the entrance and exit nozzles and headers, is

48
49
Plate Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop
Pressure drop in a plate heat exchanger consists of three contributions:
(1) pressure drop associated with the inlet and outlet manifolds and
ports,
* (generally<10%, but may be as high as 25 to 30% or higher in
some designs)
* Empirically, it is calculated as approximately 1.5 times the inlet
velocity head per pass.
(2) pressure drop with in the core (plate passages),
* the entrance and exit losses in the core (plate passages) cannot be
determined experimentally, they are included in the friction factor
for the given plate geometry. and
(3) pressure drop due to the elevation change for a vertical flow
exchanger.

50
Summing all contributions, the pressure drop on one fluid side in a
plate heat exchanger is given by:
Where
Gp is the fluid mass velocity in the port,
np is the number of passes on the given fluid side,
De is the equivalent diameter of flow passages (usually, De equals
twice the plate spacing), and
ρo and ρi are fluid mass densities evaluated at local bulk temperatures
and mean pressures at outlet and inlet, respectively.

51
Pressure Drop Associated With Fluid Distribution
Elements
• pipes, ducts, or nozzles
• manifolds, tanks, or headers for fluid distribution to the heat
exchanger flow passages
The pressure drop associated with these components usually consists of
wall friction, bend losses, sudden contraction and expansion losses, and
branch losses, depending on the geometry.

52
1. Pipe Losses
The pressure drop associated with a pipe of constant cross section, due
to wall friction,
2. Sudden Expansion and Contraction Losses

53
Fluid experiences a sudden expansion during the flow to the

manifold.
Similarly, it experiences a sudden contraction while flowing from the
exit manifold to the exit pipe.
In heat exchangers, these losses are associated with relatively large
pipes, for which the flow is turbulent.
Ke is highest for Re = ∞ for a given σ.
Borda–Carnot equation, Ke=(1-σ) 2 is generally used for a sudden
expansion in a single pipe.
The Crane equation Kc =0.5(1-σ) gives 0.25 % higher value of Ke
than Borda equation.

54
3. Bend Losses
Kb,t is the total pressure drop

coefficient due to the bend
The total pressure drop for a bend consists of two
contributions:
(1) the pressure drop for the bend due to the curvature
effect, the flow development effect in the outlet pipe,
and the surface roughness effect, and
(2) the pressure drop associated with the outlet straight pipe
of specified surface roughness.
55
The pressure loss coefficients Kb and Kf for these two
contributions to the pressure drop are strongly dependent on
the flow Reynolds number.
The bend pressure loss coefficient Kb is given by
Kb=Kb*CReCdevCrough
Kb*is the bend pressure loss coefficient evaluated at Re=106

56
Fanning friction factors for smooth and rough circular tubes (From
Bhatti and Shah, 1987.)
57
Bend pressure loss coefficient Kb* at Re=106 Reynolds number correction factor CRe as a
for circular cross section bends function of Re and rc/di

58
Outlet pipe length correction factor Cdev as a function of the outlet pipe L/di and Kb*.
Pressure drop calculations for Pipe Bends with Rectangular Cross

Section and Miter Bends is done using the same procedure and
using charts for these sections.

59
1. Pipe Losses
The pressure drop associated with a pipe of constant cross section, due
to wall friction,
3. Bend Losses
4. Pipe Bends with a Circular Cross Section.
5. Pipe Bends with Rectangular Cross Section
6. Miter Bends

60
Pressure Drop Presentation
For most heat exchanger surfaces, the core pressure drop for a given heat
transfer surface is determined experimentally using a ‘small size’ heat
exchanger, as a function of the fluid flow rate.
These data may then be used for the design and analysis of heat exchangers
of different physical size, operating at different temperatures and/or
pressures, and operating with different fluids compared to those for the test
exchanger, but using the same heat transfer surface.
It needed to present the test exchanger core Δp v/s mass flow results in a
universal form so that they can be used for operating conditions, physical
sizes, and fluids beyond those for the test exchanger.
If the detailed geometry of the heat exchanger surface is known, then the
core pressure drop versus mass flow rate results in non-dimensional form,
such as f vs. Re are used.
If the detailed geometry information is not available, the measured core Δp
vs. mass flow results are presented in dimensional form.

61
Non-dimensional Presentation of Pressure Drop Data
The core pressure drop in a dimensionless form is generally
presented in two alternative forms, in terms of the pressure loss
coefficient K or Euler number Eu and the Fanning friction factor f
defined by:
The Darcy friction factor fD is used and is related to the Fanning

friction factor f as

62
The greatest advantage of the non-dimensional presentation is that for a
given Reynolds number, geometrically similar surfaces have the same
friction factor with any fluid flowing through the surface. This means
that when converted into terms of f vs. Re, the experimental data( Δp
vs. mass flow rate) can be used for different operating conditions,
different physical sizes, and different fluids from those used in the test
conditions.
Also, such f vs. Re plots allow one to compare Δp vs. mass flow rate
data taken on different surfaces with different fluids or operating
conditions so that a heat exchanger design with minimum flow
resistance can be selected for a given application.

63
Dimensional Presentation of Pressure Drop Data
It is a common practice to present the pressure drop data in a
dimensional form for specified heat exchanger surfaces since no
geometry information is required for such a presentation.
To correct for an operating/design temperature being different from
the test temperature, a density correction is usually applied to the
pressure drop by plotting the pressure drop at some standard density.
The standard pressure and temperature are different for different
industries depending on their applications, fluids used, and other
factors.
To obtain a standard flow rate (in terms of mass flow rate or G) from
the actual flow rate measured at operating conditions for a given
exchanger surface, we need to match

64
65

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Heat Exchanger Pressure Drop Analysis

Ref: Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Design,

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The determination of pressure dropΔp in a heat exchanger is essential

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Where is the is volumetric flow rate and ηp is the pump/fan

and f is the friction factor0

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Δp=Δp1-2 +Δp2-3 –Δp3-4

TheΔp1-2 is the pressure drop at the

TheΔp3-4 is the pressure rise at the core exit.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

• While τwPdx is shown acting on both top and bottom surface in

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Using d(1/ρ)= -(1/ρ2)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Where mean specific volume

Department of Mechanical Engineering

(1/ρ)m ≈(1/ρm) is a good approximation for liquids with very minor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The second contribution to the pressure drop at the entrance is due to

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The first contribution

The second contribution

Hence, the magnitude of Ke will be positive or negative,

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Corresponding fluid pumping power P is

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Appropriate values of the f factor and Kc and Ke are used in this

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The three types of fins on tubes are:

Department of Mechanical Engineering

(2) a tube-fin exchanger having flat

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

where the friction factor is based on the hydraulic diameter

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Where Nr represents the number of tube rows.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

If U-tubes or hairpins are used in a multipass unit, additional

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Where Red =(ρum do )/μ

Department of Mechanical Engineering

•depends on the shell-side Reynolds number