Kinetic Theory (Essay)

close particles distant

particles
weak
strong attraction
attraction

 All matter is made up of very tiny particles, which are

constantly in motion.
 The molecules repel other strongly when they are forced
too close together.
 When they are slightly apart, they attract each other.
 When they are far apart, they hardly attract or repel each
other at all.
 Interpreting temperature by
kinetic theory
 The motion of the particles in a body depends on its
temperature.
 When the temperature rises, particles vibrate more rapidly
or move faster. Hence, the temperature of the body is a
measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles.
 Two bodies have the same temperature if particles in each
body have the same average kinetic energy.
 A gas model (Essay)

Particles move container

around freely at
high speed

 Gases have no fixed volume and shape.

 They can quickly fill any space available.
 In a gas, particles are very far apart. Therefore, the
attraction among them is weak.
 A gas model

Particles move container

around freely at
high speed video

 The particles move at random at very high speeds (500 ms-

1 at room temperature!).

 They collide with each other and bombard the walls of the
container.
 When gas molecules hit the walls of container, they produce
forces on the surface, which give rise to gas pressure.
 Gas pressure
Pressure is defined as the perpendicular force exerted per unit
area.

Force perpendicular to the surface

Pressure 
Area of surface

F
P
A

Pressure is measured in N m-2 or pascal (Pa).

1 Pa = 1 N m-2.
Normal atmospheric pressure or 1 standard pressure
= 1.01 x 105 Pa
Example 1
Find the pressure exerted on the 5 kg block in each of the following
cases.
(a) 10 cm
5 cm

Solution:
P=F/A
= 50 / (0.05 x 0.1)
= 10000 Pa
Example 1
Find the pressure exerted on the 5 kg block in each of the follo
wing cases.
10 cm
(b)
5 cm

30o

Solution:
P=F/A (F = normal reaction)
= 50 cos30o / (0.05 x 0.1)
= 8660 Pa
 Example 2
 The figure shows a cylinder with a 0.2 kg
piston. If the cross section area of the
cylinder is 20 cm2, and find the
pressure of the gas. Given that the
atmospheric pressure is 1.01 x 105 Pa.

 Answer: 2.05 x 105 Pa

 Measuring gas pressure
 A Bourdon gauge is used to measure
gas pressures.
 Measuring gas pressure
 A bourdon gauge works in the same way as a paper tube whistle.
When a paper tube whistle is blown, it uncoils.
 In a Bourdon gauge, the gas pressure makes the curved metal
tube stretch out slightly. This causes the pointer to move round the
scale. The higher the gas pressure, the more the pointer moves.
 Pressure, volume and temperature
 Whena gas is heated, its pressure P,
volume V and temperature T will change.
We are going to investigate these relations.
 Boyle’s law (P-V relationship)
 In 1660, Robert Boyle investigated the
relationship between the volume of a fixed
amount of gas and its pressure, keeping the
temperature of the gas constant.

Video
Experiment
 Press the air pump gently to c
hange the pressure and the v
olume of the trapped gas in th
e glass tube without changing
its temperature.
 Measure the pressure and the
volume of the gas.
 Repeat the above step to get
more sets of pressure and vol
ume.
 Results

P ∝ 1/V or PV = constant or P1V1 = P2V2

Boyle’s law: For a fixed mass of gas at a constant temperature,

the product of its pressure and volume is constant.
 Example 2
 The air pressure inside an inflated ball is 2 x 105 Pa.
The ball is now squeezed to one-third of its original
volume. Find the new pressure inside the ball.
 Solution:
 Let V be the original volume of the ball.
 By P1V1 = P2V2
2 x 105 V = P2(V/3)
P2 = 6 x 105 Pa
Thus, the new pressure is 6 x 105 Pa
 Charles’ law (V – T relationship)
 In this experiment, we keep the pressure of
the gas constant and try to investigate the
relation between its volume and
temperature.
 Experiment
 Heat the water until its temperature is
increased by 10oC.
 Record the volume and temperature of
the trapped gas.
 Repeat the above step to get more sets
of volume and temperature.
Gas column  The mercury thread should be able to
move up and down the capillary tube
freely.
 The friction between the mercury thread
and the capillary tube should be small so
that the pressure of the trapped gas is
equal the atmospheric pressure.
Charles’ law (V – T relationship)
 Heat the water until its temperature is
increased by 10oC.
 Record the volume and temperature of
the trapped gas.
 Repeat the above step to get more sets
of volume and temperature.
Gas column  The mercury thread should be able to
move up and down the capillary tube
freely.
 The friction between the mercury
thread and the capillary tube should be
small so that the pressure of the trapped
gas is equal the atmospheric pressure.

simulation
Absolute zero
 The straight line cuts the axis at
-273oC which is known as the
absolute zero of temperature.
 Absolute zero is the theoretical
lowest attainable temperature.
 Theoretically, the gas at absolute
zero occupies zero volume and
exerts no pressure. However, in
practice, it will liquefy before it
can reach this temperature.
 Kelvin scale
 When the temperature is measured in Kelvin (K), the volume of the gas
is directly proportional to its temperature shown in the figure below.

volume V

 Note: Absolute temperature (K) = Celsius temperature + 273T

Temperature
0 point of ice: 0oC = 273 K
i.e. melting (K)
room temperature: 27oC = (27 + 273) K = 300 K
boiling point of water: 100oC = (100 + 273) K = 373 K
 volume V

Temperature T
0
(K)

V V1 V2
V  T or  constant or 
T T1 T2

Charles’s law: For a fixed mass of gas at a constant pressure, its

volume is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
Example 2
An inflated balloon contains 4 x 10-3 m3 of air at 27oC. It is pu
t into a large tank of liquid nitrogen at -173 oC. What is the ne
w volume of the balloon?
 Solution:
 By Charles’ law,
V1/T1 = V2/T2
4 x 10-3 / (27 + 273)
273 = V2 / (-173 + 273)
273
V2 = 1.33 x 10-3 m3
Thus, the new volume of the balloon is 1.33 x 10-3 m3
Pressure law (P – T relationship)
 Experiment
 Heat the water unit its
temperature increases by about
10oC. Stir the water thoroughly
and wait for several minutes to
allow the air in the flask to reach
the temperature of the water.
 Measure the temperature of the
air by the thermometer and its
pressure by the Bourdon gauge.
 Repeat the above steps to get
more sets of pressure and
temperature.
 Results
 The pressure of the gas increases linearly with its temperature.
When the temperature is measured in Kelvin (K), the pressure is
directly proportional to its temperature shown in the figure
pressure P
below.

0
Temperature T (K)

P P1 P2
P  T or  constant or 
T T1 T2

Pressure law: For a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume,

its pressure is directly proportional to its absolute
Example 3
When the flask used in the experiment is put into a bath of
melting ice, the pressure is 8.7 x 104 Pa. What is the pressure
when the flask is put into a bath of boiling water?
Solution:
 Temperature of melting ice = 0 oC = 273 K
Temperature of boiling water = 100 oC = 373 K
 By pressure law, P1/ T1 = P2 / T2
8.7 x 104 / 273 = P2 / 373
P2 = 1.19 x 105 Pa
 Thus, the new pressure is 1.19 x 105 Pa
 General gas law
 Boyle’s law: PV = constant if T is constant
 Charles’ law: V/T = constant if P is constant
 Pressure law: P/T = constant if V is constant

 All the gas laws can be summarized by a general equation:

PV P1V1 P2V2
 constant or 
T T1 T2
Example 4
A weather balloon contains 5 m3 of helium at the normal
atmospheric pressure of 100 k Pa and at temperature of 27 C.
What will be its volume when it rises to an altitude where the
pressure is 80 k Pa and the temperature is 7 C?

 Solution:
P1V1 P2V2
By 
T1 T2
(100 k)(5)/(27 + 273)
273 = (80 k)(V2) / (7 + 273)
273
V2 = 5.83 m3
Thus, its new volume is 5.83 m3
Equation of state and molar gas constant
For 1 mole of gas (i.e. 6.02 x 1023 gas particles),
PV
R
T
(same for all gases) where R is called the universal molar
gas constant.
constant R = 8.31 J mole-1 K-1

For n moles of gas,

PV
 nR  PV  nRT
T
Equation of state and molar gas constant
If m is the mass of a gas and M is the mass of 1 mole of ga
m
s, the number of mole n 
M
m
From PV  nRT , we have PV  RT
M
If N is the number of molecules in a gas and NA = Avogadro
N
number = 6.02 x 10 , the number
23 n  of mole
NA
N
From PV  nRT , we have PV  RT
NA

.
R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1
Example 5
Show that the volume of 1 mole of gas occupied at s.t.p.
s.t.p is 22.4 litre
s.
Note: s.t.p. stands for standard temperature and pressure.
Standard temperature = 0oC or 273 K
Standard pressure = 1 atmospheric pressure
= 1.01 x 105 Pa

 Solution
 By PV = nRT
 (1.01 x 105)V = (1)(8.31)(273)
 V = 0.0224 m-3 or 22.4 litres
 Ideal gases
 An ideal gas is a gas that obeys Boyle’s law (PV is consta
nt) for all pressures and temperatures.
 However, real gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen o
r carbon dioxide are not ideal gases but they behave like
an ideal gas at high temperature and low pressure.
pressure
 Example 6
 Two insulated gas cylinders A and B are co
nnected by a tube of negligible volume as
shown.
 Each cylinder has an internal volume of 2 x
10-2 m3. Initially, the tap is closed and cylind
er A contains 1.2 mol of an ideal gas at a t
emperature of 37oC. Cylinder B contains th
e same ideal gas at pressure 1.2 x 105 Pa
and temperature 37 oC.

(a) Calculate the amount, in mol, of the gas in cylinder B.

Solution:
Consider the gas in cylinder B
By PV = nRT
(1.2 x 105 )(2 x 10-2) = n(8.31)(37 + 273)
n = 0.932
The amount of gas in cylinder B is 0.932 mol
 Example 6
 Two insulated gas cylinders A and B are co
nnected by a tube of negligible volume as
shown.
 Each cylinder has an internal volume of 2 x
10-2 m3. Initially, the tap is closed and cylind
er A contains 1.2 mol of an ideal gas at a t
emperature of 37oC. Cylinder B contains th
e same ideal gas at pressure 1.2 x 105 Pa
and temperature 37 oC.
(a) Calculate the pressure of the gas in cylinder A.

Solution:
Consider the gas in cylinder A
By PV = nRT
P(2 x 10-2) = (1.2)(8.31)(37 + 273)
P = 1.55 x 105 Pa
The pressure of gas in cylinder A is 1.55 x 105 Pa
 Example 6
 Two insulated gas cylinders A and B are c
onnected by a tube of negligible volume as
shown.
 Each cylinder has an internal volume of 2
x 10-2 m3. Initially, the tap is closed and cyli
nder A contains 1.2 mol of an ideal gas at
a temperature of 37oC. Cylinder B contains
the same ideal gas at pressure 1.2 x 105 P 1.2 mol 0.962 mol
a and temperature 37 oC.
(b) determine the final pressure of the ga
s in the cylinder.
Solution
By PV = nRT
P(4 x 10-2) = (1.2 + 0.962)(8.31)(37 + 273)
273
P = 1.37 x 105 Pa
Example 7
There are two containers X and Y filled with the same type of ideal
gas as shown. They are connected by a tube. A steady state is
obtained with X held at 100 K and Y at 400 K. If the volume of X is
half that of Y and the mass of gas in X is m, what is the mass of gas
in Y, in terms of m?
 Solution:
Let P be the pressure of the gas and V be the volume of cont
ainer X
For the gas in container Y, P(2V) = nYR(400) --- (1)
For the gas in container X, P(V) = nXR(100) --- (2)
 (1)/(2):
2 = 4nY/nX
nY = ½ n X
Mass of gas in Y = ½ mass of gas in X = ½ m
Example 7 root mean square
Find (a) the mean (b) mean square, and (c) the root mean
square of 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9.
Solution:
 Mean = (1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9) / 5 = 5
 Mean square

= (12 + 32 + 52 + 72 + 92)/5
= (1 + 9 + 25 + 49 + 81) / 5 = 33
 Root mean square = [(12 + 32 + 52 + 72 + 92)/5] ½ = 5.74
Example 8
It is given that the density of hydrogen gas at s.t.p. is 0.09 kg
m-3. Find the r.m.s. speed of hydrogen molecules.
Solution:
 By P = ⅓(cr.m.s.2)

1.01 x 105 = ⅓(0.09cr.m.s.2)

cr.m.s. = 1835 ms-1
 Distribution of molecular speeds
 A gas contains a large number of
molecules in rapid motions.
 In each collision between
molecules, some molecules gain
energy while others lose energy.
 As a result, each molecule has a
Particles move around
different speed.
container
freely at high speed

Simulation 1 Simulation 2
Maxwell distribution
 Note:
 Maxwell distribution is n
ot symmetric.
 When temperature incre
ases, the distribution cur
ve flattens out but the ar
ea under the curve rem
ains unchanged.
 Most probable speed c0: speed possessed by the most number of
molecules

Number of molecules with speed c

Mean speed cm: mean speed of molecules
Maxwell distribution c c   c
cm  1 2 N

Root mean square speed cr.m.s.:

co cm cr.m.s. c/m s-1

0 2 2 2
c1 c 2   c N
c r .m. s . 
It is found that c0 < cm < cr.m.s. N
 Temperature, molar mass and root
mean square speed
1
From PV  Nmc r2.m.s and PV  nRT
3
1
r .m. s  nRT
2
we have Nmc
3
For 1 mole of gas, n = 1, N = NA and the mass of the gas = m
olar mass Mm = mNA
1
Nmc r2.m.s  nRT
3
1 3RT
⇒ N A mc r .m.s  RT ⇒ c r .m.s 
2

3 Mm
 3RT
By c r .m.s 
Mm

Note:
 cr.m.s. increases with temperature. c r .m. s  T
 cr.m.s. decreases with the mass of the molecule or molar mass
of the gas. 1
c r . m. s 
Mm
Example 8
Find the root mean square speed of hydrogen molecules at
27oC.
It is given that R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1.

 Solution:
3RT
 By c r .m.s 
Mm

 cr.m.s. = (3 x 8.31 x 300 / 0.002)

0.002 ½ = 1934 ms-1
Example 9
Find the ratio of the root mean square speed of hydrogen to
that of oxygen.

3RT
 By c r .m.s 
Mm

 For hydrogen: ch = (3RT/0.002)

0.002 ½
 For oxygen: co = (3RT/0.032)
0.032 ½
 ch / co = (0.032/0.002)½ = 4
 the ratio of the root mean square speed of hydrogen to that of oxygen is 4.
 Translational K.E. and Rotational K.E.
 Translational motion

 Rotational motion

 Translational + rotational motion

Monoatomic and diatomic gases
 Monoatomic means having only one atom i
n the molecule. All of the noble gases are m
onoatomic.
 Diatomic means having two atoms in the m
olecule. Examples are oxygen, nitrogen
kinetic energy of a monoatomic gas
 Translational K.E. = ½ mc2

 Rotational motion = 0 (neglected)

Translational K.E. of a monoatomic gas
1
From PV  Nmc 2 and PV  nRT
3
1
we have Nm c 2
 nRT
3
For 1 mole of gas, n = 1, N = NA and
the mass of the gas = molar mass Mm = mNA

1 1
Nmc  nRT ⇒
2 N A m c 2
 RT
3 3
Average translational kinetic energy of a molecule
1 2 3 R 3 R  23 1
= mc  T  kT where k   1. 38  10 JK
2 2 NA 2 NA

which is known as Boltzmann constant.

 Note:
 All types of gas molecule have the same
average translational kinetic energy at the same
temperature. (  1 mc 2  3 kT )
2 2
 For diatomic gases such as hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen, the average kinetic energy
5
(translational + rotational) of a molecule = kT .
2
(Out of syllabus)
 Avogadro’s law
 Avogadro’s law states that under the same temperature
and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain an
equal number of molecules.
 Proof
Consider 2 gases under the same temperature, pressure and volume.
Let N1 and N2 be the number of molecules in gas 1 and gas 2
respectively.
1 2
For gas 1: P V
1 1  N m c
1 1 1
3
1 2
For gas 2: P2V2  N 2 m2 c 2
3
Same volume and pressure ⇒ V1 = V2 and P1 = P2
1 2 1 2
N m c
∴ 3 1 1 1  N m c
2 2 2
3
Same temperature ⇒ same average kinetic energy of a molecule
∴ 1
2 m1 c12  12 m2 c 22
1 1 2
N 1 m1 c1
2
 N m c
2 2 2 ⇒ N1 = N2
3 3
 Dalton’s law of partial pressures
 Dalton's law of partial pressures states that the total
pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the
pressures exerted by each gas if it were allowed to occupy
the whole volume alone.
p1 p2 p

p = p1 + p2
Dalton’s law of partial pressures
PV = nRT
p1 p2 p

P1 
n1 RT
P2 
n2 RT
P 
 n1  n2  RT
V V V

P = P1 + P2