Hardware Designed to

Meet the Need

Learning Objectives
• Understand how bits and bytes are used to
represent information of value to people
• Identify the functions of the components of a
CPU, the relationship between the CPU and
memory, and factors that contribute to
processing speed
• Identify different types of memory and storage
media, and understand the unique properties of
each

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Learning Objectives
• Identify different types of input and output
devices and how they are used to meet a variety
of personal and professional needs

• Understand the decision-making process

involved in purchasing a computer system

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Representing Characters and
Values with Bytes
• Bits
– Typically organized into groups of eight called bytes
• American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII)
– Code representing keyboard text characters
• Binary number system
– Uses only two values, 0 and 1
– Used by computers and digital devices to represent
and process data

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Representing Characters and
Values with Bytes

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Bits, Bytes, and People
• Digital convergence
– Merging multiple digital services into one device
• At home
– Single device can be used for audio and video, computing, and
information access
• At work
– Used to combine voice, video, text communications and
information on a single network

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Integrated Circuits and Processing
• The ability to digitize information is at the heart
of the digital revolution
– Information is useless without the ability to process it
into useful forms
• The quality of digital electronic devices is
typically a reflection of the speed of its processor
– The faster the processor, the faster and more robust
the service

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Integrated Circuits and Processing

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Integrated Circuits
• Transistor
– Composed of semiconducting material that opens or
closes a circuit
• Integrated circuits
– Used to store and process bits and bytes in today’s
computers
– Also called chips

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Integrated Circuits
• Central processing unit
– Group of integrated circuits that perform processing
• Microprocessor
– CPU circuits packed onto a smaller module
• Motherboard
– Primary circuit board of a computing device

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Integrated Circuits

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The Central Processing Unit and
Random Access Memory
• Processing
– Manipulating data as defined by program instructions
• Instruction set
– Number of instructions the processor is to carry out
• Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
– Contains the circuitry to carry out instructions
• Control unit
– Sequentially access and decodes program instructions
– Coordinates flow of data in and out of ALU

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The Central Processing Unit and
Random Access Memory
• Registers hold the bytes currently being
processed
• Multicore design
– Housing more than one CPU on a chip
– Dual-core processors and quad-core processors
• Random access memory
– Temporary, or volatile storage
• Front side bus
– Electronic pathways between the CPU and RAM

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The Central Processing Unit and
Random Access Memory

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The Machine Cycle
• Execution of an instruction involves two phases:
– Instruction phase, execution phase
– Two phases together make up the machine cycle
• Instruction phase
– Step 1: Fetch instruction
– Step 2: Decode instruction
• Execution Phase
– Step 3: Execute instruction
– Step 4: Store results

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The Machine Cycle

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CPU Characteristics
• System clock
– Produces a series of electronic pulses at a
predetermined rate called clock speed
• Clock speed
– Measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz)
• Processor numbers
– Used to market processors instead of clock speed
• Cache memory
– High-speed memory a processor can access more
quickly than RAM

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CPU Characteristics
• Wordlength
– Number of bits that a CPU can process at once
• Millions of instructions per second (MIPS)
– Amount of time it takes to execute an instruction
• Floating-point operations per second (FLOPS)
– More precise than MIPS
– Gigaflop, teraflop

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CPU Characteristics

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Multiprocessing and Parallel Processing
• Multiprocessing
– Uses more than one processing unit
• Parallel processing
– Links several microprocessors to operate in parallel
• Coprocessors
– Special-purpose processors that speed processing

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Multiprocessing and Parallel Processing
• Massively parallel processing (MPP)
– Uses hundreds or thousands of processors operating
together
• Grid computing or clustering
– Allows processors from different computers to work
together over a network on complex problems

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Multiprocessing and Parallel Processing

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Physical Characteristics of the CPU
• CPU speed
– Collections of digital circuits imprinted on silicon
wafers, or chips
– To turn a digital circuit on or off
• Electrical current must flow through a medium from Point
A to Point B
• Moore’s law
– Continued increase in technological innovations
causes transistor densities in an integrated circuit to
double every two years

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Physical Characteristics of the CPU

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Storage – System Storage
• Storage is the ability to maintain data within the
system permanently or temporarily
• System storage
– Storage used by computer system for standard
operations
• RAM, cache, video RAM, ROM, CMOS
• RAM has the largest capacity

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RAM SIMMs and DIMMs
• RAM SIMMs
– Set of chips grouped together on a circuit board
• RAM DIMMs
– 64-bit data path
– Twice that of a SIMM
• There are many types of RAM
– DRAM, SDRAM, RD-RAM, DDR-SRAM, FPMRAM,
EDO-RAM…

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RAM SIMMs and DIMMs

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Graphics Memory
• Graphics Memory
– Sometimes called video RAM or VRAM
– Stores image data to speed the processing of video
images
– Acts as a buffer, or intermediate storage area
between the microprocessor and the display
• Graphics processing unit (GPU)
• Graphics card or video card
– Contains the graphics memory, GPU, other graphic
hardware
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Graphics Memory

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System Storage
• Read-only memory (ROM)
– Provides permanent storage for data and instructions
• BIOS
– Stores hardware configuration information and boot
program
• Flash BIOS
– Intended to store data permanently
– Can be updated

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CMOS Memory
• CMOS memory
– Semi-permanent storage for information that may
change
– Uses battery power
– Able to keep accurate time and date even when
computer is shut down

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Secondary-Storage Technologies
• Storage device
– Drive that reads and writes data
• Storage media
– Objects that hold the data (disks)
• Storage capacity
– Maximum amount of bytes medium can hold
• Access time
– Time it takes for a request for data to be fulfilled by
the device

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Magnetic Media: Disks and Tapes
• Magnetic storage devices
– Store bits and bytes more permanently than RAM
• Floppy disks
– Portable, low-capacity, direct storage medium
• Microdrives
– Tiny hard drives that store data on a small disk
• Magnetic tape can be used to store vast
quantities of data

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Magnetic Media: Disks and Tapes
• Storage area network or SAN
– Links together many storage devices over a network
and treats them as one large disk
• RAID or redundant array of independent disks
– Uses a second system of disks to maintain a backup
copy of the data stored on the primary disks

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Magnetic Media: Disks and Tapes

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Optical Storage
• Uses optical laser to burn pits into the surface of
a highly reflective disk
• Compact disk read-only memory (CD-ROM)
– Optical media that stores up to 700 MB of data
• Digital video disk (DVD)
– Backward-compatible with CD-ROMs

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Optical Storage
• HD DVD and Blu-ray DVD
– Able to read smaller pits, which allows for greater
capacity
• CD-RW
– Most popular format for writable CDs

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Optical Storage

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Solid State Secondary Storage
• Solid state storage devices store data using
transistors
• Secondary solid state storage stores the data
without the need for electricity
– Flash memory
• Updates the data it holds in large blocks
• Requires no moving parts, is faster than other forms of
secondary storage, and requires less energy
– Flash memory card
• Keeps its memory when the power is shut down

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Solid State Secondary Storage
• Flash drive
– Also called USB (Universal Serial Bus) or thumb drive
– Convenient, portable, high-capacity storage
• Solid state disk
– Uses flash technology to replace magnetic hard drives
• Hybrid drive
– Combines best features of magnetic and flash memory
storage
– Solid state notebooks

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Evaluating Storage Media:
Access Method, Capacity, and Portability
• Your needs determine your storage
requirements
– Credit card company needs fast access
– Hospital needs portability, capacity, and privacy
• Faster access is more expensive
• Trend: smaller, higher capacity, faster, cheaper

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Access Method, Capacity, and Portability

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Input, Output and Expansion:
Input and Output Concepts
• Input device
– Assists in capturing and entering raw data
• Output device
– Used to observe results of computer processing
• The goal is speed and functionality

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Input and Output Concepts
• The nature of data
– Human-readable
– Machine-readable
• Source data automation
– Ensures accuracy and timeliness by automating data
entry where data is created
• Scanners to check out library materials

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Input and Output Concepts

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Input Devices
• General-purpose and special-purpose I/O devices
– Personal computer input devices
• Ergonomic keyboard
– Designed to reduce stress on the wrist

– Trackball
• Allows you to control the mouse pointer by rolling a
mounted ball

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Input Devices
• Graphics tablets
– Allow you to draw with a pen-like device on a tablet
• Mobile Input Devices
– Notebook computers integrate the mouse either as a
touch pad or a touch screen

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Input Devices
• Microphone input devices
– Speech recognition software
– Voice recognition
• Gaming
– Game controller or joystick
• Digital cameras
– The more megapixels, the higher the price
• Digital camcorders and Webcams

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Input Devices
• Scanning devices
– Page scanners and handheld scanners
• Both can convert monochrome and color pictures, forms,
texts, and other images into digital images
• Character recognition software
– Transforms scanned documents into editable
documents
• Special-purpose scanners
– Magnetic ink character recognition, optical mark
recognition, point-of-sale devices
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Input Devices

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Output Devices
• Display resolution
– Measure of the number of pixels on the screen
– Dot pitch measures space between pixels

• High-definition television and monitors

– Twice the resolution of regular TVs

• Liquid crystal display (LCD), or flat panel display

– Quickly displacing CRT (cathode-ray tube) displays

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Output Devices
• Plasma display
– Similar to LCD, but uses plasma rather than liquid
crystal between the flat panels
• LED display
– Used in thin displays to provide backlight with lower
power usage and truer color
• LCD projectors
– Used for projecting presentations from your
computer onto a larger screen

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Output Devices
• Printers and Plotters
– Used to create hard copy, or paper output
– Ink-jet and laser printers
• Photo printers
• Multifunction printers
– Combine printer, fax machine, copier, and digital scanner
• Plotters are used for printing large graphic designs
• 3D printers use CAD blueprints as input, and can output
an actual 3D prototype

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Output Devices
• Computer sound systems
– Used to draw user’s attention to important
information and to support sound for entertainment
• CD/MP3
• DVD
• Gaming
– People with limited vision
• Screen reading program, JAWS

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Output Devices

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Special-purpose I/O Devices
• Many designed for scientific and medical research
• Computer scientists and musicians at the MIT Media
Lab
– Experimenting with special input devices
• Virtual reality headset
– Can project output in three-dimensional color images
• Wearable PCs
– Fit in a pack or clip to a belt

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Special-purpose I/O Devices

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Expansion
• Desktop expansion
– USB
• Provides connection to computer for data transfer
• Provides power line
– Expansion board or expansion card
• Circuit boards for more specialized devices
• Expansion slots
– Firewire
• Competes with USB as standard for connecting devices to
PCs

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Mobile Computer Expansion
• Notebook computers
– PCMCIA slots that accept PCMCIA cards
– Ports also included for standard devices
• Handheld computers
– GPS, Internet, webcams, LCD projectors
– All the peripherals available for notebooks

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Researching a Computer Purchase
• To learn about computer type and platform
– www.cnet.com
– www.zdnet.com
• To learn about manufacturers
– Computer shopper magazine
– MacWorld magazine
– www.gateway.com
– www.dell.com
– www.apple.com

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Researching a Computer Purchase

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Online Vendors
• Online vendors
– Allow customer to configure and purchase directly
from the manufacturer, often saving you money
– Custom configure your PC
– Service options
• Online computer retailers
– Quickly and easily compare packages
– Good way to scout out and compare computer prices
• Auction sites

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Local Vendors
• Local vendors offer advantages
– Allow you to try before you buy
– Advice from qualified sales staff
– Sales, package deals, incentives
– Simpler to return if necessary
• The downside – little or no opportunity to
customize

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Payment Options
• There are various payment options available
both in the store and online
– Cash, credit
– Computer loans
– Trade-in options

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Summary
• Digital revolution
– Sparked by computer’s ability to represent and
manipulate information digitally, with 1s and 0s
• CPU
– Processes data into information that is meaningful
– Control unit uses the four-step machine cycle to carry
out program instructions
• Fetch instruction, decode instruction
• Execute instruction, and store results

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Summary
• Identify and understand the unique properties of
different types of storage media and memory
– RAM
• Volatile and temporarily stores data
– ROM
• More permanent storage
– Optical storage
• Includes CDs and DVDs

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Summary
• Input devices
• Provide data and instructions to computer
• Output devices
– Receive results from computer
• When selecting a computer system
– Analyze your specific computing needs
– Online vs. local
– Payment options

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