Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Day 1: Day 3:
TQM FMEA
Introduction to Six Sigma Process Capability
Control Charts
Define Phase
Day 4:
Project Charter
Lean Enterprise
Day 2: Day 5:
Seven QC Tools VSM Exercise
Process Mapping NTPC Case Study
Exam & Wrap Up
The Evolution of Quality
Requirements:
Product: Characteristic:
Convenience
Telephone Speed dial
and speed
Crosby’s Definition of Quality
Guilds:
Developed strict rules for
products and services.
Used stamps to identify
flawless goods.
Quality Evolution: Product Orientation
Developed in response to
Japanese quality movement.
Focused on improving all
processes through people
who used them.
W. Edwards Deming
Quality keys:
• Understanding
customer needs
• Process
improvement
• Statistical analysis
• Expertise of workers
• PDCA cycle
Joseph M. Juran
Quality keys:
• Features that
satisfy customers
• Freedom from
deficiencies
• Juran Trilogy®
– Quality planning
– Quality control
– Quality
improvement
Kaoru Ishikawa
Quality keys:
• Company-wide
participation
• Quality control circles
• Advanced statistical
methods and tools
• Nationwide quality
control promotion
Armand V. Feigenbaum
Quality keys:
• Total quality control
• Integration of quality
development,
maintenance, and
improvement
• Focus on internal
and external
customers
Genichi Taguchi
Quality keys:
• Quality should be
designed in.
• Quality should
minimize
deviations from a
target.
• DOE optimizes
performance.
Philip Crosby
Quality keys:
• Conformance to
requirements
• Prevention
• Zero Defects
• Price of
nonconformance
Total Quality Management
• A management approach
• Centered on quality
1 Customer relationships
2 Continuous improvement
3 Company-wide participation
Customer Definitions
Act cycle.
Check Do
Company-Wide Participation
3
Benefits Barriers
• Improved • “It Won’t Work Here”
productivity and • Perception of loss of
cost reduction management
• Increased authority
participation and • Employees feeling
job satisfaction “used”
• Opportunities for • “Flavor of the
professional month”
development
Quality Benefits
• Tangible • Intangible
– Increase in – Customer goodwill
earnings – Alignment
– Decrease in waste between business
– Increase in activities
productivity
W. Edwards Deming on Quality
Employees Organizations
Customers
Suppliers Society
Benefits to Employees
Pride in products and
Product quality services
Job satisfaction
Market
Share
Quality Profit
Cost
Organizations
Quality Studies and Standards
Publication Sales
Department Department Customer
Benefits to Customers
• Streamlined processes
• Efficient communication
Product safety
Process Management
Resources
• People
• Equipment
• Material
• Money
• Time
Process A
Input C P Output
D
Preceding Subsequent
Process Process
Customer Influence
Introduction to Six Sigma
What is Lean Six Sigma?
Introduction
= + + + ...
Y f(x1, x2, x3 …)
Process output (Y) is a function of (f) the inputs (Xs).
Understanding and controlling this relationship is a major
aspect of Six Sigma projects.
Focus on Variation
• Sigma (σ) refers to standard deviation, a measure of process
variation (smaller is better).
• Process Sigma is the number of units of standard deviations
between the process center and the closest specification limit
(larger is better).
• A Six Sigma process has six standard deviations (short term)
between the target and the closest specification limit.
Lower Target Upper
Spec Spec
6 Sigma
Sources of Variation
Desig
n
Materi Proces
al
$ s
Capabil
ity
Measurem
ent
System
Harvesting the Fruit of Six Sigma
Sweet Fruit
Design for Manufacturability
ta
da
us
Bulk of Fruit
uo
Process Characterization
and Optimization
in
nt
Co
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4- s Wall - Must Improve Internally
Discrete
data
----------------------------------
3 s Wall - Demand improvement
Ground Fruit
Logic and Intuition
f (X) Y
Y X1 . . . XN
Dependent Independent
Output Input-Process
Effect Cause
Symptom Problem
Control
Monitor
Would you control shooter or target to get the Gold
Medal at Olympics
Six Sigma Defines Problems Statistically
Unsafe drinking water for almost One unsafe minute every seven
15 minutes each day months
performance.
understood.
• A comparison of expectation to
experience
• A matter of degree
• A result of a good match between
supply and demand
• A predictor of repeat business
Customer Needs Translated into
“Critical To” (CT) Characteristics
Customer needs are translated into product, service or deliverable
requirements in terms of quality, delivery and cost. The “Y” of Y=f(X).
Typical Critical to Characteristics
Faster
Deployment
Stakeholder
Satisfaction
Repeatable
High probability
of success
S. Criteria Weight
No.
Higher
1 Aligned with core objectives 10
returns
2 High probability of success 10
3 Data Availability 8
4 Pain area 8
Process 5 Process Improvement 7
Improvement Ease of 6 Higher returns 8
implementation
7 Repeatable 6
Data Availability
8 Faster Deployment 5
9 Stakeholder Satisfaction 7
10 Ease of implementation 6
Project Selection Matrix Diagram
4 Pain area
5 Process Improvement
6 Higher returns
7 Repeatable
8 Faster Deployment
9 Stakeholder Satisfaction
10 Ease of implementation
Secondary Metric(s)
• Control unintended negative consequence (assures the Primary
Metric is not achieved artificially)
• May be used to measure project progress when the Primary Metric
responds slowly
• More than one may be required
• Plotted on a time series graph and shows the goal and actual
performance lines
8
Project Charter
Traditionally created by LSS Champion
Specifies details of a project including:
1. Scope
2. Responsibilities
3. Benefits
4. Schedule
5. Success criteria
A project charter template that may be adopted to fit
your organization is: Project Charter Template.
SIPOC
Supplier, Input, Process, Output, Customer diagrams
are used to:
1. Define the scope of the project
2. Identify key stakeholders
3. Gain a “30,000 foot” view of the process targeted
by the project
Tips:
1. The SIPOC is the first of several ways the
process will be documented. Therefore, it should
be at a relatively high level of abstraction.
2. It is a good way to assure agreement on the
scope of the project.
SIPOC Diagram – Questions to Answer
• Who are the customers of this process?
• What are their requirements?
• How are those requirements reflected in the
process parameters (output measures)?
• What are the process outputs?
• What are the process inputs that cause the
outputs?
• What controls are in place for the inputs?
• Who are the suppliers of the material for this
process?
• What are their requirements?
Purpose of Various Diagrams / Maps
• SIPOC diagrams provide a “forest view” of the
process – maintains focus on the customer’s
requirements.
• Value stream “trees level” describes the time, effort,
resources, and information used in the process – a
frequent source of early wins.
• Lay-out diagram (spaghetti diagram) documents
the distance an item travels during its production –
illustrates unnecessary movement.
• Process map “ground level” documents the inputs
and outputs of each step in the process – provides
the raw material for building a model of the
process.
The SIPOC Diagram – The Forest Level
• Start with the end in mind.
• Who are the customers of this process?
• What are their requirements?
• How are those requirements reflected in the
process parameters (output measures)?
• What are the process outputs?
• What are the process inputs that cause the
outputs?
• What controls are in place for the inputs?
• Who are the suppliers of the material for this
process?
• What are their requirements?
Sample SIPOC
Plant Availability
Suppliers Inputs Process Outputs Customers UI Earned
Coal Internal Plant Load factor
Coal Field Power
Water -Plant Mgmt Heat Rate
Rihand Dam Effluent
Suppliers
Air
Process Ash
-Corp Mgmt AUXILLIARY POWER
-
Power -Employee CONSUMPTION
Steam
Manpower Preferred Employer
CO2 External
Lubricants R&R
-Cent.Gov.
Maintenance Man : MW Ratio
-Ministry
Services Lead Time
-State Gov.
Spares and Manpower Utilization
-Shareholders
Consumables Quality System
-Contractors
Social Responsibility
-Suppliers
Maintenance Cost
-PAPs
Overhead Expenses
-Labour
Environment ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Boiler
DM Water Used
Turbine Safety aspect
COAL Generator Training of manpower
Cycle Time
AIR STEAM GRID In process idle stock
Air Emission quality
WATER Noise level
Collecting VoC
• Who is a customer?
• What does the customer need?
– Gathering the Voice of the Customer
– Define customer requirements
• How do the customers prioritize their needs?
• How are customer needs translated into CTQs?
Generallya less intense exercise for DMAIC projects than for
DFSS projects
More likely to be based on information that is already
available internally for DMAIC projects than for DFSS projects
Who Is a Customer?
Process
Customer
– Requirements
– Opinions
Questions to Find Voice of the Customer
• What are the elements of your business that are
the most critical, from the perspective of your top
or best customers? What are their relevant
needs?
• What data has been collected to understand the
customer requirements?
• How do you operationally define the defect from
the perspective of the customer? Under what
conditions does it occur?
Voice of the Customer Concerns
• Real vs. stated needs
• Perceived needs
– Interviews
– Focus groups
– Surveys
– Market research
Determining Customer Requirements
• Review customer verbatim comments and
comparative data
• If possible, probe for deeper understanding
• Convert into terms of process performance
• Describe the actual customer requirement
– Write the requirement, not the solution
– Use measurable terms
– Identify performance targets
– Be concise
Define Phase Review
• The purpose of the define phase is to identify and
launch a project.
• VOC should be reflected in the project charter
especially in the project success criteria.
• The Black Belt and Champion should review and
agree on the details of the project charter and
SIPOC.
• A common cause of project failure is poorly
defined or projects with excessive scope. This
review is an opportunity to mitigate that risk.
VOC ( Voice of Customer ) D M A I C
HOW ?
Better Systems
CustomerNeed
Customer Needs
WHAT ?
Optional Attendees: Mr. P.K.Mohapatra Mr. N.N.Mishra Mr. N.K.Sinha Mr. S. Banerjee
VOC
( Voice of Customer )
The Seven QC Tools
Check sheet
Stratification
Pareto diagram
C &E Diagram
Histogram
Scatter diagram
Graphs and Charts
Area of Uses
Problem Solving
Continuous Improvement-- Kaizen
Dispersion Control-- Six Sigma
Waste Elimination--Lean
QMS, EMS, TS 16949, OHSAS-Process
control, C&P
Supplier Development
Project Management--Team working
What is their role ?
In problem solving
Role
Data Collection
What is Data ?
Quantitative Qualitative
•Measurable •Subjective assessment
e.g. :Length, e.g. :Score in a
Temperature beauty contest
•Countable
e.g. :Number of
defects
Population, Sample and Data
Action
Random
X
Measurement
Population Sample Data
Sampling / Observation
Action
A Saying
When you see the data, doubt it
When you see the measuring instrument, doubt
it.
When you see the chemical analysis, doubt it.
Three Categories
1 False Data
2 Mistaken Data
3 No Data available
How to Collect Data?
Define the purpose (Follow 5W 1H approach).
Define the period for data collection.
Define the Stratification.
Design the check sheet and assess Measurement
System Capability.
Purpose
Be Clear on What, Where, When, Why, Who and How
the data should be generated
STRATIFICATION
Stratification
Method of grouping data by Common
points or characteristics
Workers Material
Machines Time
Defect Environment
Product Region
Folder Files
Machine A Machine B
Machine A Machine B
N = 450
N = 450 N 450
= 450
N=
D = 12D = 12 D =D 1118
= 118
P% = 2.7 P% = 26.2
P% = 2.7 P% = 26.2
COMBINED
N = 900
D = 130
P% = 14.4
Blister Defect
UCL
CL
Pinhole Defect
UCL
CL
All Defects
UCL
CL
CHECKSHEET
Check sheet
123456 A B C D………P Q R
Line Chart
Pie Chart
25
21
20
20 20
Multiple bar chart
% Rejection
15 15
15 14
13 13
11 11 11
10 10
10 8
6
5
5 4
3 3
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Week Number
700
600 422
257
500 358
300 221
275
200 435
375 321 348
263 285 307 294
100 201
133
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Week Number
Pie Chart for
Customer returned watches
G
F 5%
E 3%
• A – Glass Broken 4%
D
• B - Stop 6%
• C - Mvt. Trouble A
43%
C
• D - Defective Dial 12%
• E - Regulation
• F - Stem Loose
• G - Others B
27%
Control Chart
X- Bar and R Chart
2854
UCL=2853
Sample Mean
2849 Mean=2849
2844 LCL=2844
Subgroup 0 5 10 15 20 25
UCL=16.41
15
Sample Range
10
R=7.76
5
0 LCL=0
Radar Chart on ISO 9001-1994 Implementation
1
20 80 2
19 70 3
60
18 50 4
40
30
17 5
20
10
16 0 6 Series1
15 7
14 8
13 9
12 10
11
Gantt Chart for Construction Activity
Weeks
Type of work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Foundation work
Frame work
Dry-walling
Exterior touch up
Sheetrock work
Plumbing
Electrical wiring
Fit Fixtures
Paint interior wall
Interior touch up
Inspection delivery
Cum Percentage
Pareto Analysis of 30
41.7
60
50
Customer Complaints 20
40
30
10 20
10
0 0
Fish not Vegetable Bread Cashier Meat not Eggs rotten
fresh wilted Stale Rude Fresh
Pareto Principle
74.7 80
40 70
Outstanding Value
Cum Percentage
60
51.7
30
50
40
20
30
20
10
10
0 0
E D C A B F H G O
Branches
Pareto Diagram for Production Stoppage
100
A. M/C quality change
45 90
B. Intermediate conveyor
C. Power failure 40 80
D. Hopper/duct line jamming
E. Dryer drum coupling pin 35 70
F. B P full press problem
No. of stoppages
30
Cumulative %
G. Dryer preventive 60
H. Nip roller
25 50
I. Rotary comb tripped
J. Comber jamming 20 40
K. Al conveyor idle roller
L. Fire 15 30
M. Accumulation
10 20
N. Drum seal changing
O. Fan tripping 5 10
P. Chain problem
Q. Fiber jamming 0 0
R. Zone gear box A B C D E F G H I J K L MN O P Q R S
S. Zone conveyor
Pareto Analysis of Complaints at a Laundry
120 60
100 50
80 35 40
60 30
40 20
20 10
0 0
Late Missing or Fading Stains Creased Buttons Stretched
delivery wrong colours Missing or torn
items
Brain Storming
Defer evaluation
Fantasize freely
Generate quantity
Build on ideas
Defer Evaluation
Define problem
Gather members for discussion
Conduct Brainstorming
Group causes into 4M’s
Man, Material, Machine, Method
For each cause, ask, “What goes wrong
that produces the effect”.
Identify major causes
Cause and Effect Diagram for high petrol consumption
Spark plugs
Impatience Heavy
Poor Bad Contacts
Craze Life
anticipation attitude
Body Technical
Wrong Poor details
skill Shape
Always gears Fuel mix
late Lack of Inexperience High H.P Carburetor
awareness Wrong
Riding on culture Engine
clutch
Cylinders High Petrol
Spurious Consumption
Crossings
Spares Impurities
Restrictions Traffic Incorrect
One way
No turn Tyres Inferior Octane no.
Frequent Petrol
Faulty
Circuitous stops Negligence
Speed Breakers pressure Additives
Road
Ignorance
Potholes Irregular Incorrect viscosity
Low pressure
Poor servicing
Clogged
condition Oil
False filters
Steep economy Not changed
Low level
Road Maintenance Materials
Cause & Effect Diagram
PROCESS MATERIALS
PERSONNEL EQUIPMENTS
Uses of C & E Diagram
25 24
20 19
17
Frequency
15
12
11
10 9
6
5 3
2
0
1.776 1.868 1.96 2.052 2.144 2.236 2.328 2.42 2.512
Consumption(KWh)
HISTOGRAM
Histogram
25 24
20 19
17
Frequency
15
12
11
10 9
6
5 3
2
0
1.776 1.868 1.96 2.052 2.144 2.236 2.328 2.42 2.512
Consumption(KWh)
Histogram Construction
Select a sample of min. 50
Record the measurements.
Determine the range.
Decide the no. of classes.
Divide range into no. of classes
Determine boundary or class limits.
Prepare frequency distribution.
Construct histogram (GRAPH).
Data on Metal Block thickness (in mm)
3.56 3.46 3.48 3.50 3.42 3.43 3.52 3.49 3.44 3.50
3.48 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.47 3.48 3.46 3.50 3.56 3.38
3.41 3.37 3.47 3.49 3.45 3.44 3.50 3.49 3.46 3.46
3.55 3.52 3.44 3.50 3.45 3.44 3.48 3.46 3.52 3.46
3.48 3.48 3.32 3.40 3.52 3.34 3.46 3.43 3.30 3.46
3.59 3.63 3.59 3.47 3.38 3.52 3.45 3.48 3.31 3.46
3.40 3.54 3.46 3.51 3.48 3.50 3.68 3.60 3.46 3.52
3.48 3.50 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.46 3.48 3.46 3.52 3.56
3.52 3.48 3.46 3.45 3.46 3.54 3.54 3.48 3.49 3.41
3.41 3.45 3.34 3.44 3.47 3.47 3.41 3.38 3.54 3.47
45
40 37
35 33
30
Frequency
25
20
15
9 10
10
5 3 3 3
1 1
0
3.3 3.35 3.4 3.45 3.5 3.55 3.6 3.65 3.7
Thickness (in mm)
Histogram for Bearing Thickness
45
41
40
35
31
29
30
Frequency
25 22
20 18 17
15 12
9
10
5
5 3
0
5.24 5.28 5.32 5.36 5.4 5.44 5.48 5.52 5.56 5.6
Thickness (in mm)
Histogram for Energy Consumption
30
25 24
20 19
17
Frequency
15
12
11
10 9
6
5 3
2
0
1.776 1.868 1.96 2.052 2.144 2.236 2.328 2.42 2.512
Consumption(KWh)
Types of Histograms
Bell shaped
Symmetrical shape with a peak in middle
representing a normal histogram
30
25 24
20 19
17
Frequency
15
12
11
10 9
6
5 3
2
0
1.776 1.868 1.96 2.052 2.144 2.236 2.328 2.42 2.512
Consumption(KWh)
Skewed to Left & Right
Skewed to Left
Caused by centering the process toward high end of the
tolerance
Skewed to Right
Caused by centering the process toward low end of the
tolerance..
Bimodal & Truncated
After
Histogram Uses
Common Causes
---Chance Causes Of Variation
Special Causes
--- Assignable Cause Of Variation
Common Cause
Consists of combined effect of several sources of
uncontrollable variation inherent to a process.
25 24
20 19
17
Frequency
15
12
11
10 9
6
5 3
2
0
1.776 1.868 1.96 2.052 2.144 2.236 2.328 2.42 2.512
Consumption(KWh)
process variability process variability
Good Process Behavior
1050
1045
1040
Severed Length (mm)
1035
1030
1025
1020
1015
1010
1005
1000
5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
Conveyor Speed (cm/sec)
Uses:
Control Purpose
Replacing a destructive test by a
non-destructive test
Study of Cause & Effect
relationship
Process Optimization
Process Mapping
About This Module…
\DataFile\ProcessT.ppt
Six Sigma, A Quest for Process Perfection
Attack Variation and Meet Goals
What We Will Learn …
1. The importance of process maps and the character of
the product and process parameters.
2. The when, why and where to use process maps.
3. The x’s & y’s and X’s & Y’s and Y=f(x,X).
Basic
Process
Model Resources
• People
• Equipment
System • Material
• Money
• Time
Feedback
Cycle Time
• Establish ownership.
• Verify and describe the purpose of the
process.
• Define the process, boundaries, and
interfaces.
• Organize and train the process
improvement team.
Principles of Process Management
Process - Level #2
Process - Level #3
Defects
TO REDUCE DEFECTS!
The x’s and X’s are the sources of variation in your
process.
Variation causes defects.
The x’s must be under control to prevent defects.
The root cause of a defect is variation of the x’s!
The y’s and Y’s are the measured results of the process
and include the failure modes of the process.
Defects are also outputs of a process step.
What Are We Measuring?
Measure the x’s, not the Y’s !
X’s _________
Inputs ?
x’s _________
Process Parameters
?
Process Step Outputs
y’s _________ ?
Y’s Process Outputs
_________ ?
6 M’s reminders:
Man (People)
Machine (Equipment) Product Parameters, y’s
Method (Procedures) DEFECT FREE OUTPUT
Material
DEFECTS IN PROCESS OUTPUT
Measurement
Mother Nature (Environment)
What Are the x’s and y’s?
X’s Y’s
Inputs Outputs
6 M’s reminders:
Process Parameters, x’s
Man (People)
Machine (Equipment)
N y = f(x)
Method (Procedures) N
Material
N
Measurement
N Product Parameters, y’s
Mother Nature (Environment)
C
C
KEY for (x’s)
Process Parameters
C
N Noise Parameters
C Controllable Process Parameters C
S SOP Parameters
CR Critical Parameters
S
S
Identifying Product & Process Parameters
The following may be helpful to identify process
parameters that have a potential effect on the product
parameters and process output:
Brainstorming Remember the 6 M’s
Man (People)
Literature review
Machine (Equipment)
Operators manuals Method (Procedures)
Material
Work Instructions
Measurement
Operator experience Mother Nature (Environment)
Controllable Parameters:
How are they monitored?
How often are they verified?
Are optimum target values known?
How much variation is there around the target values?
How consistent are they?
Identify/classify
measurements
taken on product
& process
parameters
Continue to
update &
classify Classify/ Develop initial list Identify/classify
process map! characterize of process parameters upstream
process parameters along with current in-process
into 3 main factors operating conditions product parameters
Noise factors
Standard operating procedures
Controllable process parameters
Consider Every Process Step
1. What Process
feedback 5. What Customer
All work is a process
Requirements
All
processes have 2. What Output
owners Specifications
Allprocesses can be 3. What Input 4. Who are Customers – Function
described as a verb – Reliability
and noun – Format
6. Who are Cost
Allprocesses can be
analyzed and Suppliers Schedule
improved
Process owner’s
feedback 7. What
requirements on the
supplier Supplier
Specifications
Requirements
Cost
Schedule
8. Process Controls/Dependencies
Procedures/Policies Training/Education Equipment/Facilities Quality Attitudes
Any written Performance Space required Personal attitude
document that skills Processing which is less than
controls/impacts a Certifications equipment the requirement
process
Causes of Process Map Failure
CONCERN RESPONSE
Requires extra effort - “We know the Initial payoff is team understands
process - lets just move forward” process -- team members are not
working on different set of
assumptions. Use experts to help
you through the mapping process
3. The x’s & y’s and X’s & Y’s and Y=f(x,X).
Datafile/CopyFMEA.xls
Why Use FMEAs?
What is an FMEA?
Identify
critical product characteristics and process variables
Prioritize
product and process deficiencies in support of
downstream improvement actions
Help focus
on prevention of product and process problems
Benefits of FMEA’s
What is an FMEA?
Process - Level #2
Process - Level #3
Workbook in Excel
\DataFile\FMEAForm.xls
Cause -Failure Mode -Effect Continuum
What is an FMEA?
Effect (y’s)
Cause Failure
(x’s) Mode
The Cause and Effect Diagram Example
What is an FMEA?
Admin/Service Example First produced in 1950 by
Measurements Materials Manpower Professor Kaoru Ishikawa -
Also called the:
Ishikawa Diagram
Fish Bone Diagram
Measurement
Manpower Material
Reproducibility Repeatability
Inadequate Late
training Linearity
Wrong quantity
Stability
Lack of
experience Defective Calibration
Distractions
Defects
Too hot
Vague
Too humid
Not maintained Out of date
Datafile/Causeeffecte.igx
Copy Machine Example
What is an FMEA?
• Our process is copying
documents on a Xerox model
XC1045 copy machine.
• First we will construct a
process map
• Then we will construct a cause
and effect diagram
• Finally we will complete an
FMEA
Process: Making A Copy
What is an FMEA?
button
Document set Number of Size selected Darkness set Correct Copies Copies
correctly copies selected correctly directly paper tray Right number
Glass clean correctly selected Right contrast
Right
orientation
Right size
Right paper
Legend
C Controllable
Cr Critical
N Noise
P Procedure
x Input
Step 1: Identify “Heavy Hitter” Process Step
The FMEA Process
From the Process Map, identify the process step with
the most likelihood of having failure modes with
significant effects
Use defect data and/or team knowledge about failure
modes when selecting process steps
Significant impact to the business? (COPQ, cycle time,
fill rate, ...)
Use a Cause and Effect Diagram to capture
brainstorming results.
After completing FMEA Steps #2-7 for all failure modes
associated with this process step, return to this step and
select the next most likely “Heavy Hitter” process step
Not all process steps will need to be analyzed by the
FMEA
Step 2: Identify Associated y’s
The FMEA
Process
Materials Manpower
Measurement
Wrong Size Selected wrong
Wrong Paper orientation
Selected Size
Copy Misaligned
Too Humid Document Moved
When Lid was Alignment Marking
Closed Unclear
Mother Method
Nature Machine
occurrence and
detection.
9: Determine Actions/Plan
Based on the causes found, determine actions that
will minimize the effect of each cause, in priority
order.
Steps 10 and 11
The FMEA Process
10: Recalculate RPN Based on Plan
Assuming the actions are carried out successfully, reassign
severity, occurrence and detectability.
Place these new ratings in the “predicted” columns (ps, po & pd).
Assign a rating from 1 to 5 for each action that will show the “risk”
associated with each action (5 being the greatest risk). Place the
rating in the “risk” column.
Note: When completing a Process FMEA, first assume the material is good and
the process is bad. Then assume that the process is good and the material is
bad. Lastly, review the process for safety considerations.
Design/Product FMEA
Types of FMEA
Correct
angle Ball flys Accurate Correct
straight measurement distance
± 2 inches recorded
Datafile/Catapultflow.igx
Complete the Diagram Below
FMEA
Exercise
Men
Method Material
Rubber Band Release consistency
Calculation procedure Angle measurement
Ball
Distance
Reproducibility
Mother nature
Machine Measure
Datafile/CatapultC&E.IGX
When To Update an FMEA?
FMEA Summary
An FMEA should be updated whenever a change is being
considered to a product’s:
design
application
environment
material
product’s manufacturing or assembly process
Summary of Product/Process FMEA’s
FMEA
Summary
What is the tool? When do you apply this tool?
– Spreadsheet – When evaluating product for
robustness (functionality,
What will the tool produceability, reliability)
identify/show? – During early stages of defect reduction
efforts to identify causes
– All product/process failure
modes, related effects, – When identifying key process/product
causes, & methods of parameters and evaluating methods
controlling them for controlling them
– Risk Priority Number (RPN)
for action based on failure What results can you expect?
severity, probability of – Learn to identify critical product/
occurrence and detection process parameters
capability – Achieve consensus on solutions and
– Actions/plans to reduce methods of implementation
elements of RPN – Detailed product/process
understanding
Keys to Success
FMEA
Summary
Identify purpose...BE SPECIFIC!
Encourage creativity...TEAMWORK!
PLAN!
ASK QUESTIONS!
Process FMEA Steps
What is an FMEA?
Steps Completed Prior to FMEA:
– Charter Team
– Develop and Characterize Process Map
FMEA Steps:
1. Identify “Heavy Hitter” Process Step
1. Identify Associated y’s (Product Parameters)
1. Identify Failure Mode
1. Identify Failure Effects/Rate Severity
1. Identify Causes/Rate Occurrence
1. Identify Controls (if any)/Rate Detection
1. Calculate RPN
1. Prioritize by RPN Order
1. Determine Actions/Plan
1. Recalculate RPN Based on Plan
1. Take Action
FMEA Appendix
Key Definitions for FMEA
Severity is an assessment of how serious the effect of the potential failure mode is on the customer.
The customer in this case could be the next operation, subsequent operations, or the end user.
Occurrence is an assessment of the likelihood that a particular cause will happen and result in the
failure mode.
Detection is an assessment of the likelihood that the current controls (design and process) will detect
the cause of the failure mode, should it occur, thus preventing it from reaching your customer.
The customer in this case could be the next operation, subsequent operations, or the end user.
Current Controls (for both design and process) are the mechanisms which prevent the cause of the
failure mode from occurring, or detect the failure mode, should it occur, before the product
reaches your “customer.” For example, current controls include SPC, inspections, written
procedures, training, preventive maintenance and all other activities that ensure a smooth
running process.
Critical Characteristics are those items which affect customer safety and/or could result in non-
compliance to regulations and thus require controls to ensure 100% compliance. These are
usually process“settings” such as temperature, time, speed, etc.
Significant Characteristics are those items which require SPC and quality planning to ensure
acceptable levels of capability.
FMEA Appendix
Terminology
A. Process or Product Name – Description of Process or Product being analyzed.
B. Responsible – Name of Process Owner.
C. Prepared By - Name of Agent coordinating FMEA study.
D. FMEA Date – Dates of Initial and subsequent FMEA Revisions.
E. Process Step/Part Number – Description of individual item being analyzed.
F. Potential Failure Mode – Description of how the process could potentially fail to meet the
process requirements and/or design intent, i.e. a description of a non-conformance at that
G. Potential Failure Effects – Description of the effects of the Failure Mode upon the customer,
i.e. what the next user of the process or product would experience or notice.
H. SEV (Severity) – An assessment of the seriousness of the effect of the potential failure mode
I. Potential Causes – Description of how the failure could occur, described in terms of something
J. OCC (Occurrence) – Description of how frequently the specific failure cause is expected to
K. Current Controls – Description of process controls that either prevent, to the extent possible,
L. DET (Detection) – An assessment of the probability that the current controls will detect the
potential cause, or the subsequent failure mode.
M. RPN (Risk Priority Number) – The product of the Severity, Occurrence, and Detection
Rankings i.e., RPN = SEV * OCC * DET.
N. Actions Recommended – Actions to reduce any or all of the Occurrence, Severity or Detection
rankings.
O. Responsibility – Person or group responsible for the Recommended Action.
P. Actions Taken – Brief description of actual action and effective date.
Q. New SEVERITY Rating after corrective action.
R. New OCCURENCE Rating after corrective action.
S. New DETECTION Rating after corrective action.
T. Resulting new RPN after corrective action.
Introduction to Process Capability
About this Module
• Process capability enables the prediction of the
ability of any process to produce products and
services that meet their desired specifications.
• This module focuses on typical manufacturing
processes. Transactional and other
manufacturing processes are not discussed here.
• The principles of process capability will be
introduced and Minitab will be used to calculate
process capabilities.
Learning Objectives
At the conclusion of this module participants
will be able to:
1. Recognize the value of and uses for process
capability.
2. Calculate and explain the capability of
processes whose output is normally
distributed.
3. Predict the probability that the output of a
process will be within its specification limits.
We Live in a Statistical World
Basic Statistics
• Statistics have a pervasive influence on
our lives
– Every day there is another poll
– Sampling is being used to perform many
aspects of the census
– All major economic indicators are based on
samples
– TV ratings are based on samples
– Statistics determine insurance rates
• Quantum physics has demonstrated that
Types of Statistics
Definitions
Descriptive statistics
is the process of describing the information we have.
We summarize information from a sample or
population give a clear understanding, or description,
of the data.
Inferential statistics
is the process of using information from a smaller set
of data (sample) to reach conclusions or inferences
about a larger group (population). Usually, we have
only sample information, not the entire population, and
must infer understanding of the population based on
our sample. We want these conclusions to be
mathematically correct.
Data Types
Attribute
Definitions
Yes - no
Good - bad
Accept - reject
Discrete
Multiples of whole units
Can not be meaningfully divided
Count or classification
Continuous
Can be meaningfully divided into finer and finer
increments of precision weight, length, voltage,
time
Measures of Central Tendency - Location
Definitions
X = Sample mean N
Population Samples
Size N n
Location Average (Mean) m x
Dispersion: Variation
Variance s2 s2
Std dev s s
Range R = XHi-XLo
x1 xn
X
x2
ˆ= X
12 Maximum = 95
X=m
F
r 10 i
e i=1
q 8
u n
e 6
n Variable X measurements:
c 4
y 75 80 75 65 70
2 85 70 70 85 70
60 80 80 80 65
0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
80 75 75 70 85
70 75 75 75 85
Values of X 80 55 70 70 85
65 70 80 75 65
75 85 90 80 65
70 75 75 80 80
75 95 90 60 65
Measures of Variability - Variance =
Sigma Squared
Definitions
Sigma Squared is a measure of dispersion of the
population about the mean
Variances are not in the units of interest; standard
deviations are in the units of interest
Variances are additive; standard deviations are not
additive...
…so s12 + s22 + s32 is OK,
but, s1 + s2 + s3 is NOT OK
Measures of Variability – S. D. = Sigma
Definitions
Standard Deviation is a measure of dispersion of the
population about the mean
s = the units of interest and is population standard
deviation
m = population mean
N = total population
(
s = estimate of standard
X1 m
2
) (
deviation2
+ X2 m + X3 m) (2
... X N m ) ( ) 2
s (X )=
n = sample size
N
(X X ) + (X
2
X ) + (X
2
X ) ...(X
2
X ) 2
ŝ = s = 1 2
n-1
3 n
Normal Distribution
Each curve shown here has: Therefore, the same % of
An area of one the population is under
A mean of zero each of the curves for n s
A standard deviation of s about the mean.
Quantifying the Normal Distribution
Definitions
m3sm2sm1smm+1sm+2sm+3s
68.26%
95.46%
99.73%
Probability Density Function –
Standard Normal Distribution
Definitions
X m
Z=
s
Permits conversion of any data point (X) into a Z
value. This value allows us to look up the percentage
of the population that is above and below the data
point.
Sample Questions………
Q. A new iron ore mine is discovered. 10 Kg ore is
collected from each of 20 spots.
a. This procedure is called as __________ .
b. Average is calculated from iron content of each of 20
spots. This value is called as ________________
c. If we calculate average, range and standard deviation
from the iron content values of each lot, this data is
called as ________________ .
d. Predictions are made regarding average iron content
of the mine, total iron that can be extracted, impurities
present etc. the analysis is called as ___________ .
e. The above calculations will give answers which will be
100% correct. True / False
Answers
a. The procedure is called as SAMPLING.
LSL USL
Visualizing Process Capability
Process width
Specification
width
Quantifying Process Capability
Yield of a one sigma process 0.683 If we assume the
process is centered
on the target and
does not shift or drift
the yields would be.
m s= S (X – X)2
1 Sigma - 68%
2 Sigma - 95% n
3 Sigma - 99.73 %
1s
p(d)
operation?
x m
Z = = (650 – 500) / 100 = 1.5
s
x m
Z = = (700 – 500) / 100 = 2
s
Looking up z table, the corresponding value under the
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Calculating Shifted Process Yield
USL-X Using tables or software to look up the
ZUSL =
σ̂ area under the curve when Z=-.5 we
1-0-1.5 find .3085
ZUSL = = .5
1
LSL-X Again using tables or software to look
ZLSL =
σ̂ up the area under the curve when Z=-
-1-0-1.5 2.5 we find .0062.
ZLSL = = 2.5
1
Subtracting the two we obtain .3023
Using These Principles
addressed first.
80
Percent
LSL
Process Data
0.995
Within
Target 1 Overall
USL 1.005
Sample Mean 1.00006 Potential (Within) Capability
Sample N 750 Z.Bench 2.26
StDev(Within) 0.00198431 Z.LSL 2.55
StDev(Overall) 0.00198636 Z.USL 2.49
Cpk 0.83
Overall Capability
Z.Bench 2.26
Z.LSL 2.55
Z.USL 2.48
Ppk 0.83
Cpm 0.84
LSL
Process Data
0.995
Calculated Within
Target 1 Overall
USL 1.005 directly
Sample Mean 1.00006 Potential (Within) Capability
Sample N 750 from the Z.Bench 2.26
StDev(Within) 0.00198431 Z.LSL 2.55
StDev(Overall) 0.00198636 data. The Z.USL 2.49
Cpk 0.83
within Overall Capability
Z.Bench 2.26
standard Z.LSL 2.55
Z.USL 2.48
deviation is Ppk 0.83
Cpm 0.84
the pooled
45 960 975 990 005 020 035 050
99 9 9 9 0 0 0 0
0. 0. 0. standard
0. 1. 1. 1. 1.
Observed Performance
% < LSL 0.40
Exp. Within Performance
% < LSL 0.54
deviation% < LSL
of
Exp. Overall Performance
0.54
% > USL 0.67 % > USL 0.64
% Total 1.07 % Total 1.18
the %% >Total USL 0.65
1.19
subgroups.
Worksheet: Bottle Caps.MTW
Observed Performance
Process Capability of Caps
LSL TheTarget
percent USL
Process Data
Within
LSL 0.995 of product
Target 1 Overall
USL
Sample Mean
1.005
1.00006
that was Potential (Within) Capability
Sample N
StDev(Within)
750
0.00198431
outside of Z.Bench
Z.LSL
2.26
2.55
Z.USL 2.49
StDev(Overall) 0.00198636
the upper Cpk 0.83
5 0 5 0
based
5 0
on 5
the0
Cpm 0.84
LSL
Process Data
outside 0.995 of the Within
Target 1 Overall
USL upper 1.005 and
Sample Mean 1.00006 Potential (Within) Capability
Sample Nlower 750 Z.Bench 2.26
StDev(Within) 0.00198431 Z.LSL 2.55
specification
StDev(Overall) 0.00198636 Z.USL 2.49
Cpk 0.83
limits on an Overall Capability
long term Z.Bench 2.26
Z.LSL 2.55
basis. This Z.USL 2.48
Ppk 0.83
projection is Cpm 0.84
5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0
based on the 994 996 997 999 000 002 003 005
0. 0. 0. 0. 1. 1. 1. 1.
overall
Observed Performance Exp. Within Performance Exp. Overall Performance
standard
% < LSL 0.40 % < LSL 0.54 % < LSL 0.54
% > USL 0.67 % > USL 0.64 % > USL 0.65
deviation
% Total 1.07 and
% Total 1.18 % Total 1.19
the process
Worksheet: Bottle Caps.MTW
mean.
Potential Within Capability
Process Capability of Caps
Z USL and Z LSL are
LSL Target USL
calculated using the
Process Data
Within
LSL
process
Target
0.995
1
mean, the Overall
USL 1.005
respective
Sample Mean 1.00006 Potential (Within) Capability
Sample N 750 Z.Bench 2.26
specification
StDev(Within) 0.00198431 limits and Z.LSL 2.55
StDev(Overall) 0.00198636 Z.USL 2.49
the within standard Cpk 0.83
Overall Capability
deviation. Z.Bench 2.26
Z.LSL 2.55
Z bench is calculated by Z.USL 2.48
Ppk 0.83
putting the projected Cpm 0.84
Ppk is Bottle
Worksheet:
calculated
Caps.MTW
as 1/3
of the lesser of Z USL or
Z LSL.
Within - Between
Process Capability of Caps
80
Percent
50
20
Do not
5
reject the
1
assumption
0.01 of
0.9950 0.9975 1.0000 1.0025 1.0050
Caps Drift
normality.
Worksheet: Caps Drift.MTW
Capability Analysis
Capability Analysis
Process Capability of Caps Drift
1 ± .06 Inches
Process average
Design width
(.12 Inches)
80
Percent
50
20
5
1
0.01
Probability Plot of Part B
9.8 9.9 10.0 10.1 10.2 Normal
Part A
99.99
Worksheet: Process Capability Exercise 1.MTW Mean 10.00
StDev 0.05647
N 750
99 AD 0.248
95 P-Value 0.752
80
No reason to reject the Percent
50
assumption of 20
part. 0.01
9.8 9.9 10.0 10.1 10.2
Part B
Worksheet: Process Capability Exercise 1.MTW
Exercise 2 Process Capabilities
Exercise 2 Part A Process Capability
Process Capability of Part A
LSL
Process Data
9.9
Within
Target 10 Overall
USL 10.1
Sample Mean 10.0009 Potential (Within) Capability
Sample N 750 Cp 0.67
StDev(Within) 0.0496334 CPL 0.68
StDev(Overall) 0.0504922 CPU 0.67
Cpk 0.67
Overall Capability
Pp 0.66
PPL 0.67
PPU 0.65
Ppk 0.65
Cpm 0.66
_
_
10.00 X=10.0009
9.95
LCL=9.9343
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136
Sample
UCL=0.2441
0.2
Sample Range
4 _
R=0.1154
0.1 44
4
0.0 LCL=0
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136
Sample
LSL
Process Data
9.9
Within
Target 10 Overall
USL 10.1
Sample Mean 9.99961 Potential (Within) Capability
Sample N 750 Z.Bench 1.71
StDev(Within) 0.0496334 Z.LSL 2.01
StDev(Overall) 0.0564727 Z.USL 2.02
Cpk 0.67
Overall Capability
Z.Bench 1.43
Z.LSL 1.76
Z.USL 1.78
Ppk 0.59
Cpm 0.59
_
_
10.00 X=9.9996
9.95
5 5 LCL=9.9330
1 1
9.90 1 1 1
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136
Sample
UCL=0.2441
0.2
Sample Range
4 _
R=0.1154
0.1 44
4
0.0 LCL=0
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136
Sample
\DataFile\PurchOrd.mtw
\DataFile\PwrSuply.mtw
\DataFile\Conf-Int.mtw
\DataFile\OEack.mtw
What We Will Learn...
How
Population representative is
this sample?
Sample
Confidence Interval Symbols and
Definitions
Measure Population Sample
Use
Parameter Statistic
Z n 30÷
sis known
Mean m X
t n <30÷
Variance s2 s2 c2
Standard
s s c2
Deviation
Process ^
Capability
Cp Cp c2
^ F or
Proportion p p Z (approx)
a Typically
Alpha Risk
.05
Confidence Intervals (CI)
CI take the general form :
5
.5
.5
.5
.5
4
-4
-3
-2
-1
0.
1.
2.
3.
-3
-2
-1
-0
We can use Z to
estimate t if
n 30
and s is known
STATISTICS FOR
EXPERIMENTERS-- BHH
Hypothesis Testing
About This Module…
Design:
Determine if two alternate design
changes are significantly different.
Manufacturing:
Determine if two different types of
material wear differently.
Administrative/Transactional / Service:
Determine if the change to a process
affected the cycle time.
Purposes of Hypothesis Testing
Action
Ho not rejected Ho rejected
State of Nature
Ho should not Type I or
Correct
be rejected producer’s risk
Decision
(Ho is true) a = P(Type I)
b a
When When
Population SD Population SD
is Known is Not Known
Sample size n is Normal Normal
> 30 distribution, z distribution, z
table table
X1 X 2
t(a ,df ) = = -1.26
2 2
s s
+
1 2
n1 n2
P = .112
P> .05 therefore fail to reject Ho.
Hypothesis Testing Decision Tree
Hypothesis Ho: P1=P2 Ha: P1 P2
Testing Minitab: Stat-Basic Stat-1or 2 proportions
ADMINISTRATIVE
MANUFACTURING
DESIGN
Correlation = 1 Correlation = - 1
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Correlation = 0
Correlation Example
\DataFile\Correlat.mtw
Two test stations are used to measure power supply
voltage.
Is there a correlation?
Minitab: Stat>basic stat>correlation
Correlation of Station 1 and Station 2 = 0.959, P-Value = 0.000
Is this reasonable?
9.3
9.2
9.0
were on the diagonal
line, would8.9we have
8.8
perfect correlation?
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.6 8.8 9.0 9.2 9.4 9.6
Station 2
Worksheet: Correlat.MTW
9.4
R-Sq
R-Sq(adj)
92.0%
91.5%
different from
9.3 the preceding
9.2
one?
Station 1
9.1
9.0
8.9
8.8
8.7 What are the
8.6 implications?
8.6 8.8 9.0 9.2 9.4 9.6
Station 2
Worksheet: Correlat.MTW
What action
Slide 225 was actual line – this is a would you
fitted line. Can be used for prediction. take?
Best Fit Line
Fitted Line Plot
Cases = 22.47 + 0.7546 Test Piece
100 S 11.5131
R-Sq 49.4%
90
R-Sq(adj) 47.7% By minimizing the
80
residual sum of
squares, we get a
Cases
70
60
best fit line of the
50
form:
40
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Yi = a + bXi
Test Piece
Worksheet: cases.MTW
\DataFile\Attribut mtw
\DataFile\Variable.mtw
What We Will Learn.
2) Monitor a process
Sw = standard deviation of w
Centerline = X
Lower Control Limit LCL = X 3Sw
Therefore 99.73% of points will be within the control limits
unless there is an assignable cause
Control Chart Selection Tree
Type of data
Discrete Variable
X Bar and R
Fixed or Variable Fixed Fixed or Variable IMR Chart
Fixed or
variable variable
X Bar and S
opportunity? opportunity?
Supplement
with EWMA if
CTQ is
P Chart
C Chart U Chart NP Chart sensitive to
small process
shifts
X and R Control Chart Formulae
& Constants
X Control Limits =X ± A 2 R
R Upper Control Limit = D 4 R
R Lower Control Limit = D3 R
Sample A2 D3 D4 d2
Size
2 1.880 - 3.267 1.128
3 1.023 - 2.574 1.693
4 .729 - 2.282 2.059
5 .577 - 2.114 2.326
6 .483 - 2.004 2.534
7 .419 .076 1.924 2.704
8 .373 .136 1.864 2.847
9 .337 .184 1.816 2.970
10 .308 .223 1.777 3.078
Creating Control Charts for Variables
\DataFile\Variable.mtw
Creating an X-bar and R Chart
An X-Bar and R Chart
Xbar-R Chart of measure1, ..., measure5
1 1
1
5
UCL=41.294
41
Sample Mean
_
_
40 X=40.000
6
39 6
LCL=38.706
1
1 1
38
1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Sample
UCL=4.743
4.5
Sample Range
3.0
_
R=2.243
1.5
0.0 LCL=0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Sample
Worksheet: Variable.MTW
TEST 5. 2 out of 3 points more than 2 standard deviations from center line (on
one side of CL).
Test Failed at points: 10, 17, 47
TEST 6. 4 out of 5 points more than 1 standard deviation from center line (on
one side of CL).
Test Failed at points: 7, 32, 34
* WARNING * If graph is updated with new data, the results above may no
* longer be correct.
StatGuide Interprets the Tests
Comparing the Suppliers
Xbar-R Chart of measure1, ..., measure5 Xbar-R Chart of measure1, ..., measure5
42 1 1
UCL=41.207 1
41 5 UCL=41.384
Sample Mean
5
Sample Mean
_ _
_ X=40.106
40 X=39.894 40
6
5 5 LCL=38.829
39 1
LCL=38.580 38 1
1 1
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Sample Sample
UCL=4.816 UCL=4.683
Sample Range
Sample Range
4 4
_ _
2 R=2.278 2 R=2.214
0 LCL=0 0 LCL=0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Sample Sample
11 2 2 _
_
X=10.568
10
6
6 6
LCL=9.286
9
7/31/2006 8/4/2006 8/10/2006 8/16/2006 8/22/2006 8/28/2006 9/1/2006 9/7/2006 9/13/2006 9/19/2006
Date
4.5 UCL=4.699
Sample Range
3.0
_
R=2.222
1.5
0.0 LCL=0
7/31/2006 8/4/2006 8/10/2006 8/16/2006 8/22/2006 8/28/2006 9/1/2006 9/7/2006 9/13/2006 9/19/2006
Date
10 6
6 6
LCL=9.286
9
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Sample
4.5 UCL=4.699
Sample Range
3.0
_
R=2.222
1.5
0.0 LCL=0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Sample
Worksheet: Variable.MTW
The tests detect the process shift but it would have been
detected earlier if the control limits had been based on the
first 20 data points.
Detecting Gradual Process Drift
Minitab calculates control limits based on the entire data set be default.
Freezing control limits detects shifts earlier than using the entire data set
to calculate limits.
Xbar-R Chart of Stacked Data 1s
12
1 1
2 2 UCL=11.360
2 2 2
5 6 2 2
11 2
Sample Mean
6 2 2 2
6
_
_
10 X=10.112
9
LCL=8.864
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Sample
4.5 UCL=4.575
Sample Range
3.0
_
R=2.164
1.5
0.0 LCL=0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Sample
Worksheet: Variable.MTW
Rational Subgrouping
• Usually consecutive units
• Must come from a single distinct population
• Within subgroup, variation should be white noise only
• Between subgroups should capture variation due to black noise
Process
Challenge
Philosophy
373
Liker Model - 4 Ps
1. Philosophy
• Long-term thinking even at expense of short-term financial
goals
2. Process
• Eliminate waste by focusing on flow, pull, workload
balance, error reduction, standardization, visual controls,
and jidoka or use of reliable, tested technology/automation
with mistake proofing and human touch
3. People and Partners
• Respect, develop, and challenge people
4. Problem Solving
• Fix and prevent problems by continual learning, going to
place where problem occurs, getting hands dirty, and
making good decisions based on fact
374
What Is Lean?
Lean is a methodology
• that allows organizations to drastically improve
bottom line
• by improving processes and monitoring everyday
business activities to reduce errors
• in ways that increase value and minimize work, non-
value-add tasks, and waste while increasing
customer satisfaction
- Based on idea that faster processes yield less waste,
less cost, less work in process, less complexity,
higher quality, and happier customers
Womack and Jones Model
5. Continuously improve
Lean Principles
• Create value for customer
• Understand:
– Who is customer – person or entity who is
recipient of product or service; one who places
value on output; catalyst/trigger in value chain
• Another business
• Someone inside own business
• Specific individual, group, or team
• Consumers—ultimate customer
– What customer considers valuable
• Make value flow based on customer’s needs
Lean Principles (cont.)
• Consider life cycle of information, materials,
processes, products, and services
• Look for process problems that prevent people
from performing best work
• Eliminate waste
– Non-value-add steps
– WIP
– Cost
• Standardize work
• Do not become distracted by other stakeholders
Value-Add Quiz
In which category should the following be
placed?
Activity Value Add Type 1 Type 2
Attending weekly team coordination meeting
Filtering through daily e-mail list
Reporting status to upper management
Gaining multiple approvals on documents
Gaining management approval for routine actions
Expediting document through approval list
Writing formal policies and procedures
Writing brief work-method instructions
Gaining regulatory or agency approvals
Creating ISO 9000 documentation
Hunting for needed information to do your job
Building “best practices” database
Holding lessons learned meeting
Spending time on process improvements
Lean vs. Traditional
Lean Traditional
• Simple and visual signals • Complex
• Demand driven • Forecast driven
• Inventory as needed • Excessive inventory
• Reduce non-value added • Speed up value-added
• Small lot size work
• Minimal lead time • Batch production
• Quality built • Long lead time
• Value stream managers • Inspected-in
• Functional departments
Benefits of Lean Manufacturing
3 hours
Cans Sheet Rolled Plate
• Introduction to Lean
7 Wastes of Lean
5
Continuous Improvement 2
Sustain Organize/Straighten
Discipline A place for
Waste everything
3
4
Clean/Sweep
Maintain/Standardize
Housekeeping /
Establish standards
Inspection
Workplace Scan
“Understand your Current State”
• Start with a workplace Scan
• Team Based Workplace Scan Display
Area Checklist
• Define the boundaries Details Score
– Visual
– POUS
– Standard Work
– TPM
Point-Of-Use Storage
• Does the
carpenter walk
back to the
toolbox every
time a tool is
needed?
• Which waste is
this?
• What does the
carpenter do?
Proximity
• Typically, up to 60% of time is spent on
finding/collecting items needed.
• Minimize non-value activities
• Store as close as possible and within reach
• Layout and workstation design should
accommodate required materials
• Try to use the packaging from the supplier
or have the supplier change packaging
POUS Components
• Have the:
– Information
• Use horizontal
transfers and gravity
feeds when possible
• Support heavy objects
• Set items
ergonomically
• Must be comfortable
for a day’s work
Benefits
Blocks
transportation waste
Benefits of 5S
• Improved equipment reliability
• Superior quality
• Increased productivity
• Better workflow
• Enhanced Safety
• Reduced inventory
• More pleasant place to work
• Impress customers
Video
• Introduction to 5S
Building Blocks of Lean
around
do your job
Andon Lights
Display Panels
Range Markings
On Gauges
Shadow Boards
Standard Work
• Specific
• Measurable
• Repeatable
• Documented
Standard Work
Identifies value added versus non-value added
activities
• Reduce or eliminate non-value added activities
• Convert Internal Time to External Time,
wherever possible
• Continuous Improvement: once Standard Work
is established as a base and displayed at
workstations, operators monitor and implement
improvements
• Use as a training tool for new employees
• Created by input from the people who actually
work in the process
Philosophy of Standard Work
organization’s needs
Process Capacity Table
Times for: Changeover Analisys Chart
NVA = X
• Elapsed time Seq
1
No. Element
Review work order for die number and material
Symbol
Elapsed Element Internal External
Time
600
Time
600
Time Time Comments
300 Convert to External
2 Locate the die 1800 1200 300 Convert to External
• Element time 3
4
Locate material
Get tools
3000
3600
1200
600
300 Convert to External
300 Convert to External
• Internal Time 5
6
Tagout machine
Loosen bolts
4500
4980
900
480
60
60
Prepare Tags before
Use quick connects
7 Disconnect hoses 5280 300 60 Use quick connects
• External Time 8
9
Remove die from press
Return die to Tool Room
5580
6180
300
600
120 Position die cart
300 Convert to External
10 Load die into press 6480 300 90 Use positive stops
• Manual Time 11
12
Align die
Tighten bolts
6960
7440
480
480 60
0 Eliminate
Use quick connects
X
• Transportation 16
17
Make sample piece
Take first piece sample to QC
9000
9600
60
600
60
120 Have QC Tech ready
18 Adjust die and press 10800 1200 0 Pre-adjust die X
• Inspection Transport Process Inspection Storage Total Time 11460 750 2400 Page ____ of _____
• Storage
Use to identify bottlenecks Use to calculate the capacity of
machines, and identify bottlenecks
Work Combination Sheet
Sequence of: Product Fam ily: B - Generators Tim e Available: 24,600 seconds Date: January 31, 200X
• Machine
Manual Machine
ID Description of Work Element Operation Operation Walking Start Manual Operation
Machine Operation
Walking
1 Manually load WC-1 12 32 0 1 44 0 0 12 32 0
2 Start WC-1, go to WC-2 3 0 2 2 5 44 49 3 0 2
operations time 3
4
5
Unload part, Load Part, Start Machine, go to WC-3
Unload part, file corner, inspect to print
Load next part, start machine, go to WC-1
1
45
2
16
120
15
2
0
3
3
4
5
19
165
20
49
68
233
68
233
253
1
45
2
16
120
15
2
0
3
• Walking
6 Fasten parts A-1, and B-1 together, go to AS-2 23 41 2 6 66 253 319 23 41 2
7 Fasten Housing and Base 42 0 0 7 42 319 361 42 0 0
8 Package generator 35 0 0 8 35 361 396 35 0 0
9 Load on cart 5 0 4 9 9 396 405 5 0 4
10 0 0 0 10 0 405 405 0 0 0
11 0 0 0 11 0 405 405 0 0 0
12 0 0 0 12 0 405 405 0 0 0
13 0 0 0 13 0 405 405 0 0 0
Shows the
14 0 0 0 14 0 405 405 0 0 0
15 0 0 0 15 0 405 405 0 0 0
16 0 0 0 16 0 405 405 0 0 0
17
interactions
17 0 0 0 0 405 405 0 0 0
18 0 0 0 18 0 405 405 0 0 0
19 0 0 0 19 0 405 405 0 0 0
20 0 0 0 20 0 405 405 0 0 0
between machines 21
22
23
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
21
22
23
0
0
0
405
405
405
405
405
405
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
and operators 24
25
26
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
24
25
26
0
0
0
405
405
405
405
405
405
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
27 0 0 0 27 0 405 405 0 0 0
28 0 0 0 28 0 405 405 0 0 0
29 0 0 0 29 0 405 405 0 0 0
30 0 0 0 30 0 405 405 0 0 0
operator work 1
Non-cyclical Work Elem ents
Time
Seconds
PCS Rate
Total Time (Cyclical + Non-cyclical):
Throughput per shift = Available Time / Total Operating Time:
Work Flow Diagram
405
content as takt 2
3
4
WC-1 WC-2 WC-3
AS-1
time changes 5
Total Non-cyclic Time:
AS-1 AS-1
Standard Work Sheet
Product Family
• Machine B - Generators
Process
WC-1 WC-2
• Tools Description
Final Assembly
1 3 2
• Layout
WC-3
Supplier
(Standard stock) 2 1
-1
AS
FS-1
AS-2
Displayed at Workstations
Productivity
Time Time
Benefits of Standard Work
• Standard documentation for all shifts
• Reductions in injuries and strain
• Employee ownership of process
• More pleasant working conditions; higher
morale
• Better than traditional time and motion
studies
• Reduced variability
Poka-yoke
• Error proof (mistake proof) takes away the
possibility of human error
• The term Poka-yoke was made popular by
Shigeo Shingo
• Fail-safe devices
• Low cost, highly reliable mechanisms
• Detects abnormal situations before they occur,
or
• Once they occur, will stop the equipment from
further production. The machine stoppage
makes the problem visible.
Other Poka-yoke Examples
Value Stream
Purpose of Value Stream Map
• Has customers’ perspective and focuses on meeting
customers’ wants and needs
• Starts with immediate customer and maps back to
receiving inputs from suppliers and shows how fits
into overall value stream
• Provides single view that is a complete, fact-based,
and time-based representation of stream of activities
• Provides common language and view for analysis
• Shows how information triggers and supports
activities
• Shows time for activities and whether they add value
Elements of Value Stream Map
• Process steps
• Value-add classification for each step
• Information flow such as orders, requirements, schedules,
messages, approvals, specifications, kanban signals, shipping
information, standard procedures
• Box score of key operational metrics including cycle time, waiting
time, working time, conveyance time, distance traveled, items
per shift, items processed per hour,setup time, backlog/work-in-
process, amount of inventory between last step and consumer,
defects, cost information, resource availability and active time,
process variations
• Lead time is amount of time for one item to flow completely
through process, noted along bottom of flow
• Takt time showing customer demand rate, in upper right corner
of flow
Value Stream Analysis Steps
• Identify deliverable, value stream, and sponsor who has authority and
responsibility to allocate resources and make changes across
organization
• Identify customer and value from customer’s perspective as well as
regulatory, legal, and compliance requirements
• Draw visual representation of process current state, generally draw
steps starting at consumer’s view working back through steps to
sources of material and labor; flows from left to right with time, with
steps in order of occurrence
• Add metrics and observations like Takt time/throughput, cycle times,
defect rates, and inventory/work-in-process and information flows to
identify magnitude and frequency of waste
• Use lean principles to reduce or eliminate waste and reduce cycle time
• Develop future state map, document steps of process that need to
happen, and prioritize and implement action plans to achieve future
state
Value Analysis Matrix Steps
• Structure value analysis matrix
• Number process steps on sub process map
• Have column for each process step
• Estimate time for each process step
• Place check in category for each process step,
either value-add or one of non-value-add
categories
• Total number of hours or number of checks for
each row
• Report percentages of value-add and non-
customer required
Value Analysis Matrix Example
Process Step 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 10
10 Total % Total
Time (Hours) 1212 1010 1 1 1010 2020 6 6 1010 1 1 1010 2020 100
100 100%
100%
Value -Add
-Added 22 2%
2%
Internal Failure
Control/Inspection 66 6%
6%
Prep/Set -Up
Prep/Set-Up
Total 100
100 100%
100%
RFQ Creation Value Stream Map
Iterate
Revise
Triggering
Event Measurable
Deliverable
Continue Continue As-Is Process
Cycle Time*:
C/T = Calendar Time
W/T = Work Time C/T = 58 days
VA/T = Value-Add Time W/T = ~14 days
VA/T = 5 days
Revise Assumes no revisions!
Sales Order Processing Value
Stream Map C/T = Calendar Time
W/T = Work Time
VA/T = Value-Add Time
Time Customer is On Telephone
Hardcopy
Train Electronic
Cell
Boat
Person
Plane
Fun Current State Icons
?
?
?
Fax
o
&@#$
%!
Current State Map Setup
Tips
•Use 11” x 17” paper, landscape
•Use pencil and eraser
•Draw by hand
•Don’t waste time putting it on a computer just to
make it look nice (non-value added time)
•Practice, practice, practice
Steps
•Customer
•Supplier
•Process
•Information flow
•Calculate process time and lead-time
Current State Map Setup
Supplier Customer
information Information Flow Area information
• Formula
Time Available
Takt Time =
Demand
Takt Time Calculation
Time available
Shift (8 hours) = 480 mins
Breaks (2 x10) - 20 mins
Lunch - 30 mins
Meetings - 5 mins
C/O - 5 mins
Total Time = 420 mins = 25,200 sec
Demand = 265 parts
Takt Time = 95 sec/part
Takt Time Calculation
• Takt Time = Demand Rate
– Goal: Produce to demand with no excess
capacity
• Takt Time = work time available number of
units sold
• Assume 5 people work, sell 500
units/week:
– Takt Time = (5 x 40 x 60) / 500 = 24 min/unit
– Set cycle time to match personnel/operation
– For three-step process, perfect is 8 min/step
Exercise
8
7
6
5
4 A B C D E
3
2
1
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
1 Hour C/O – Half Batch Size
8
7
B D A C E
6
5
4
3 A C E B D
2
1
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
10 Minute C/O – Small Batch Size
8
E E E E E
7
6 D D D D D
5
4 C C C C C
3 B B B B B
2
1 A A A A A
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
10 Minute C/O – Many Different Small
Batches
8
B
7 D E
6 D C D
E F B
5
H
4 C C
3 B
B A H G
2
1 A F G A B
I
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
Changeover Summary
Based on 40 hours per week
Number of Production
Number of
C/0 Time Production Time
Changeovers
Runs Available
2 Hour 5 5 30 hours
1 Hour 10 10 30 hours
1. Preparation, after-
process adjustments,
30% 5%
checking of material
and tools (30%)
15%
2. Mounting, removing
tools and parts (5%)
3. Measurements,
settings and 50%
calibrations (15%)
Typical proportions
4. Trial runs and
adjustments (50%)
Step 1. Separate Internal and
External Times
• Checklists
• Functional checks
• Eliminate adjustments
– Markings
– Scales
• Functional clamps
• Mechanization
Changeover Cart Example
Before After
• Waste of time to find • Saves time
correct tools • Do not have to replace
• Tools can become tools as often
damaged • Have what you need
• Waste of money for extra where its needed
tools
QCO and Other Building Blocks
• 5S, Visual, POUS, Teams and Standard
Work
• VSM can discover opportunities for QCO
• As Batch Size Reduction continues, QCO
becomes more important
• Kaizen Blitz is a great method to implement
QCO
• Must sustain the gains
Benefits of Quick Changeover
• Shorter lead time
• Less material waste
• Fewer defects
• Less inventory
• Lower space requirements
• Higher productivity
• Greater flexibility
• Better Teamwork
Building Blocks of Lean
• Focus on Process.
• Focus on Elimination of Waste.
• Focus on Speed.
• Time improvement translates directly to
cost savings and customer satisfaction.
Kaizen Blitz Steps
1. Select specific area for improvement.
2. Define current situation in measurable
terms
3. Set aggressive goals (stretch goals).
4. Identify team members.
5. Conduct training on the first day of the
project.
6. Do it (in three to five days).
Step 1 – Select Project
• Value Stream Map
• Bottlenecks
• Customer or quality related issues
• Interdepartmental
• Long lead-times or setup times
• Competitive advantage
• Cost reduction or avoidance
Step 2 – Define Current State
• Video tape
• Time study
• Flowchart
• Historical information
• Observations and interviews
Step 3 – Identify Team Members
• Cross-functional teams (seven to ten persons)
• Hourly and salaried personnel
• Operators, engineers, supervisors, maintenance persons,
managers, technical experts, material handlers, quality
personnel, business support personnel, participants from
the outside
• Typically, Team Leader is person with clout and is the
highest stakeholder in the process. Ideally, the team
leader must possess leadership skills, open minds, strong
desire to succeed and some prior “Lean” experience.
Step 4 – Set Aggressive Goals
• Define the purpose or objective and set stretch
goals.
• Goals should be clearly defined and quantifiable
(e.g., reduce machine set up time by 75%,
increase throughput by 40%, reduce floor space
by 30%).
• Emphasis should be on identifying and
eliminating waste, and then standardizing at the
improved level.
• Benchmark when possible
Step 5 – Conduct Training
• Select hands-on training that is compatible
with the project
• Do training on the first morning
• Provided by an internal or external expert
Step 6 – Do it!
• Perform in 3 to 5 days
Example 1 – Universal Joint QCO
5S Implementation Map
• Plan
– Identify 5S Champions 8 9
7 8 8 9 9 10 13
& Teams 8 8 9 9
– Decide how to roll-out 1 5 4 2
10
to entire organization 11
1 4 3
– Resources required 14 14
5
6 12
• Train
– Train just before
Kaizen
– Train-the-trainer
• Do
• Improve & Repeat
5. Kaizen Blitz
Select a Kaizen Blitz project
• Perform in 3-5 days
• Focus on speed and elimination of waste
• Can perform on “low hanging fruit”
• Generates quick victories and
improvements
• Do not continue in an Ad-hoc approach,
use your Value Stream Map
6. Pilot Projects
Pilot Projects
• Implement Lean Pilot Projects where bottlenecks
have been identified
• Use cross-functional teams
• PDCA methodology is best
• Can use benchmarks and best practices for goal
setting
• Communicate results
• Migrate lessons learned to other areas
7. Change Management
Change Management
• Begin with cultural Change Management before
rolling out Lean
• Address the human side of Lean in your three to
five year Master Plan
• Use internal/external change agents
• Communicate the need for change: ultimately,
Lean has to become integrated into daily work life
• Open up channels for sharing ideas
8. OEE
• Create discipline/motivation/incentives
• Emphasize accountability
• Job rotation
How to Setup the Lean Team
• Steering Committee
• Design Teams
• Champions
Lean Team Roles & Responsibilities
Design Team
Lean Steering HPT
Committee Design Team
Champions Champions
Champions
Steering Committee
Design
Design Team/ Design Design Design
Team
Champions Team Team Team
Champions
Momentum
• Have to build a
“critical mass” of
employees trained in
Lean and apply
principles
• Build “buy-in” and
get people onboard
• “Bandwagon” affect
Organizational Alignment
Dealing with Objections to Lean
! ?
Status Quo
Land
Lean Enterprise vs.
Lean Manufacturing
www.asq.org