TRANSDUCERS

Electrical quantities, such as current,

voltage, etc. themselves produce electrical
signals. Hence their measurements involve
proper conditioning of the signals and
displaying them in convenient ways.
Transducers are seldom necessary in such
measurements. Sometimes called sensors or
detectors, transducers more often than not
constitute the first stage of an
instrumentation, set up for the
measurement of non-electrical quantities.
 Transducers Cont…
A transducer is a device which receives energy in
one form or state and transfers it to a convenient
form or state. So, transduction is just not
conversion of energy from one form to another,
although sometimes it may be so. For example, a
diagphragm will produce a displacement are
both manifestations of mechanical energy,
though from the measurement point of view the
displacement is more convenient. So, a
diaphragm is a pressure transducer although it
does not convert energy from one form to
another.
 Transducers Cont….
• Again, a junction of dissimilar metals-
thermocouple- produces and electrical output
with the change of temperature. Here, it’s a
case of conversion of heat energy to an
electrical one, the latter being preferred from
the standpoint of convenience of
measurement. A thermocouple is, therefore, a
temperature transducer.
 Transducers Cont….
The transducer, or the responding device, can be
mechanical, electrical, optical, acoustic, magnetic,
thermal, nuclear, chemical or any of their
combinations. But, of them electrical devices are
preferred for the following reasons.
1. The signal can be conditioned, i.e. modified,
amplified, modulated, etc. as desired.
2. A remote operation as well as multiple readout
is possible.
 Transducers Cont….
• 3. Devices, such as Op-Amps are available to
ensure a minimal loading of the system.
• 4. Observer-independent data acquisition and
accurate control of the process with the help
of microprocessors, of for that matter
computers are possible.
 CLASSIFICATION: Active and Passive
• Electrical transducers can broadly be divided
into two categories: active and passive. Active
ones are self-generating devices, their
functioning being based on conversion of
energy from one form to another. And since
they generate energy themselves, no external
source of energy is necessary to excite them.
The thermocouple belongs to this category.
 Passive Transducer
• Passive transducers, on the other hand, do
not generate any energy. They need be excited
by the application of electrical energy from
outside. The extracted energy from the
measurand produces a change in their
electrical state which can be measured. For
example, a photoresistor can be measured.
When exposed to a light of certain intensity
(measurand) its resistance changes, thus
changing the voltage across it.
 CLASSIFICATION: Active and Passive
• Depending on their principles of operation,
active and passive transducers can be
classified as follows:
• Active: Thermoelectric, piezoelectric,
photovoltaic, Electromagnetic, Galvanic.
• Passive: Resistive, Inductive, capacitative,
Magnetoresistive, Hall Effect based,
Photoconductive, Thermoresistive,
Elastroresistive.
 Active Transducers
Property used Device Application in the
measurement of
Thermoelectricity Thermocouple Temperature
generation
Thermocouple Radiation pyrometry or
temperature of distant
objects
Thermocouple gauge Low pressure

Piezoelectricity generation Piezoelectric transducer Pressure

Photoelecticity generation Photodiode in combination pressure
with a diaphragm
Electricity generation by Electromagnetic pick-up Flow
moving a coil in a magnetic
field
 Passive transducers
Property used Device Application in the
measurement of
Resistance variation Potentiometer Displacement
Strain gauge Small displacement useful
in the measurement of
strain, pressure, force,
torque
Pirani gauge Low pressure
Hot-wire anemometer Flow
Platinum resistance Temperature
thermometer
Thermistor Temperature
Photoconductive cell or Pressure
light-dependent-
resistor(LDR) in
combination with a
diaphragm
 Passive transducers
Property used Device
Inductance variation Linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT)
synchro
Eddy-current gauge
Capacitance variation Capacitor gauge
Dielectric gauge
Application in the
measurement of
Displacement
Angular displacement
Displacement
Displacement, Pressure
Liquid level, thickness
(which are basically
displacement)
 Transducers
• Transducers that we have discussed so for generate
analogue outputs. But there are some which generate
output in the digital form. Digital displacement
encoders belong to this category.
• A transducer producing output in the electrical format
may be the first element in an instrumentation system.
Generally, such sensing elements are called primary
transducers. Sometimes, as for example in pressure
measurement, they are preceded by mechanical
counterparts. There, the electrical sensors become
secondary transducers.
 Transducers
• It is important to remember that since
transducers constitute the sensing element in an
instrumentation system, the precision of the data
produced by the instrumentation system
depends, in most of the cases, on the capability
of the transducer. For example, a precise
temperature control can hardly be achieved if the
transducer used is a crude bi-metallic strip.
Therefore, the selection of a proper transducer is
important from the standpoint of required
precision
 Selection criteria
• Fundamental parameters
• (a) Type of measurand
• (b) Range of measurement
• (c)Required precision, which includes
• (i) allowable non-linearity effects
• (ii) allowable dead-zone effects
• (iii)frequency response
• (iv) Resolution
 Selection Criteria
• Environment
• (a) Ambient temperature
• (b) Corrosive or non-corrosive atmosphere
• (c)What shock and vibration to withstand
• Physical conditions
• (a) Room or available space to mount the transducer
• (b) Whether the measurement is static or dynamic
• (c) How much energy can be extracted from the
measurand to do the measurement without much
loading.
 Selection Criteria
• Compatibility with the next stage:
• Normally, some standard signal conditioner
and display devices are used with a
transducer, unless they are custom-built to
suit the requirements of the transducer. In the
former case, the transducer should be so
chosen as to meet the requirements of the
next stage, such as:
 Selection Criteria
• (a) Impedance matching
• (b) Excitation voltage matching
• (c) Sensitivity tolerance matching
• These criteria, of course, are not exhaustive but
they offer some guidance as regards selection of
a suitable transducer.
• Transducers can be constructed from various
materials and in many designs. But to gain
acceptance in the field of instrumentation they
must conform to the following six cardinal
requirements.
 Selection Criteria
• 1. Ruggedness to withstand overloads
• 2. Linearity
• 3. Repeatability
• 4. Stability and reliability
• 5. Good dynamic response
• 6. Convenient instrumentation
 Selection Criteria
• Our convenience we will deal with the
measurement of the following five physical
quantities because the techniques involved in
these measurements are of representative
character.
• 1. Displacement
• 2. Stain
• 3. Pressure
• 4. Temperature
• 5. Flow