CARTOGRAPHY

Cartography – is the science of preparing all types of maps and charts, and includes
every operation from field surveys to final printing of copies.

Purpose of Cartography
To collect and analyze data and measurements of the various patterns of the earth and to
represent them graphically on such a reduced scale that the elements of this pattern can
be made clearly visible.

Map – derived from the Latin word “mappa” meaning cloth or sheet
-- a graphic representation of all or a portion of the earth’s surface or other
celestial body, by means of signs and symbols or photographic imagery at some given scale
or projection, to which lettering is added for identification
-- may emphasize, generalize, or omit the representation of earth features to satisfy
specific requirements. Maps are frequently categorized and referred to according to the
type of information, which they are designed primarily to convey, to distinguish them from
maps of other types.

Survey Plan -- a type of planimetric map, which depicts the lengths, and directions of
boundaries, as well as the relative horizontal positions of any existing structures on a land
parcel. This is usually prepared for a specific land development project.
”All survey plans are maps but not all maps are plans.”

Marine (hydrographic) and air (aeronautical) maps are generally called charts.
Atlas – a bound collection of maps and charts
-- term used for such a volume by the renaissance cartographer Gerhardus Mercator.

Globe – a sphere with a representation of the earth on its surface, it is the most accurate
representation of the earth. It is set at an angle corresponding to the inclination of the earth’s
axis and can be rotated.

Planimetric Map – a map which shows the earth’s surface in the two horizontal dimensions
only. It shows the correct horizontal position of natural and man–made features such as land
forms, bodies of water, vegetation, buildings, roads, properly boundaries, political
boundaries, etc.

Topographic Map – a map using suitable symbols, it shows the configuration of the earth’s
surface, called relief, which includes such features as (1) hills and valleys; (2) other natural
features such as trees and streams; and (3) the man–made features such as houses, roads,
canals, and cultivation.

Relief may be represented by relief models, shading, hachures, form lines, or contour lines.

Topography – features of the surface of the earth considered collectively as to form. A single
feature (such as a mountain or valley) is called a topographic feature. Topography is
subdivided into hypsography (relief features), hydrography (water and drainage features) and
culture (man–made features).
Thematic map – a map showing one or more themes or subjects such as distribution of the
inhabitants over the country or its region or the concentration of minerals in an area or soil
composition, etc., usually on some skeletal topographic background.

Hydrographic map – a map showing a portion of the waters of the earth, including shorelines,
the topography along the shores and of the submerged portions, and as much of the
topography of the surrounding country as is necessary for the purpose intended.

Photo map – is a continuous representation of the ground obtained by piecing together

individual photographs into a composite grid lines, contour lines, boundaries, place names,
and marginal information have been added or overprinted. This map is also known as
Controlled Mosaic.

Nautical chart – a map especially designed for the mariner, on which are shown navigable
waters and the adjacent or included land, if any, and on which are indicated depths of water,
marine obstructions, aid to navigation, and other pertinent information. Also called
hydrographic chart.

Aeronautical chart (or air navigation chart) – a chart especially designed for air navigation
use, on which – in addition to essential topography – are shown obstructions and aids to
navigation and other pertinent information. They are sometimes referred to as airway maps,
and are published at scales ranging from 1:1,000,000 to 1:250,000 and larger.

Base map – a map showing certain fundamental information, used as a base upon which
additional data of specialized nature are compiled. Also, a map containing all the information
from which maps showing specialized information can be prepared; a source map.
Cadastral map – a map showing the boundaries of subdivisions of land, usually with bearings
and lengths thereof and the areas of individual tracts, for purposes of describing and recording
ownership. It may also show culture, drainage and other features relating to the value and use of
land.

Overlay map – a record on a transparent medium to be superimposed on another record; for

example, maps showing original land grants (or patents) prepared as tracing cloth overlays so
that they can be correlated with the maps showing present ownership. Also, any of the several
overlays that may be prepared in compiling a manuscript map.

Computer generated map/plan – is a computer based output map/plan. The electronic

computers are used to capture information such as survey data, natural and man–made features
and stored in digital form wherein they can be processed and retrieved in graphic forms using
Automated Graphic System.

Map projections – a systematic drawing of lines on a plane surface to represent the parallels of
latitude and the meridians of longitude of the earth or a section of the earth.

Planigraphic map -- same as a topographic map but without relief. World maps of general
content and Atlas maps belong to this class.
Relief maps – three-dimensional models of the terrain in an area; on them, color and scale are used
to indicate geographical features rather than simply to delineate political boundaries. Because of
this feature, relief maps are extensively used in engineering and the military.
Such maps are usually carved out of clay or plaster of Paris. To emphasize relief, the vertical scale of
relief maps is usually several times the horizontal scale. Such maps can also be manufactured by
stamping plastic sheets in a mold.

Political maps – maps showing only towns and political divisions without topographic features

Geologic maps – maps showing the geologic structure of an area; and maps indicating the
geographic distribution of crops, land use, rainfall, population, and hundreds of other kinds of social
and scientific data. Another useful type of map is the relief map, which is a three-dimensional
model of the terrain of an area. Relief maps are extensively used in military and engineering
planning.

Cadastral map – map drawn on a large scale to show large ownership.

Globe, a model of the earth or of the heavens. Globes are a kind of map. Most globes are formed
from a series of roughly triangular maps called gores. Globes that represent the earth’s surface are
called terrestrial globes. Most of these globes represent the political features or relief (physical)
features of the earth by colors printed on a smooth surface. A molded three-dimensional surface is
used on some relief globes to represent the surface of the earth with miniature mountains, valleys,
and other physical features.
Unlike flat maps, globes can represent the earth’s curved surface without distortion. Globes
are often used to plan long sea and air routes, called great-circle routes, and to determine the
routes of satellites. They are also used to trace earthquake shocks and tsunamis (tidal waves). All of
these routes are measured better on a globe than on a flat map because they are not straight lines:
they follow the earth’s curvature.
Islander Sea Chart- Many no literate peoples, however, are skilled in depicting essential features
of their localities and travels. During Capt. Charles Wilkes's exploration of the South Seas in the
1840s, a friendly islander drew a good sketch of the whole Tomato Archipelago on the deck of
the captain's bridge. In North America the Pawnee Indians were reputed to have used star charts
painted on elk skin to guide them on night marches across the plains. Montezuma is said to have
given Cortés a map of the whole Mexican Gulf area painted on cloth, while Pedro de Gamboa
reported that the Incas used sketch maps and cut some in stone to show relief features. Many
specimens of early Eskimo sketch maps on skin, wood, and bone have been found.

Eskimo Maps- made by an Eskimo who did not know how to read or write and never heard of
cartography. Yet he did this model according to cartographic principles. He put thousands of
mental images of hundred of voyages and by complex mental processes, forged into the concept
this map represents.

Babylonian Maps- Centuries before the Christian Era, Babylonians drew maps on clay tablets, of
which the oldest specimens found so far have been dated about 2300 BC. This is the earliest
positive evidence of graphic representations of parts of the Earth; it may be assumed that
mapmaking goes back much further and that it began among no literate peoples. Centuries
before the Christian Era, Babylonians drew maps on clay tablets, of which the oldest specimens
found so far have been dated about 2300 BC. This is the earliest positive evidence of graphic
representations of parts of the Earth; it may be assumed that mapmaking goes back much further
and that it began among no literate peoples.
Early Chinese Maps- They developed their cartography in a high degree in very early times, and
we have many records of it and a few actual remnants. Maps have hard use and perish more easily
than books or other records. The oldest known Chinese map is dated about 1137. Most of the
area that is now included in China had been mapped in crude form before the arrival of the
Europeans. The Jesuit missionaries of the 16th century found enough information to prepare an
atlas, and Chinese maps thereafter were influenced by the West.

Japanese and Greek Maps- They discovered the spherical shape of the earth, measured its size,
defined the poles the equator and the tropics. They designed the parallel meridian system, divided
into degrees as what we use today.

Roman Cartography- They are more interested in a practical map for travel and war, and designed
a disk shape map, the “orbis terrarium” which was widely imitated in the middle ages.

Arabic Cartography- The Arabs translated Ptolemy's treatises and carried on his tradition. Two
Islāmic scholars deserve special note. Ibn Haukal wrote a Book of Ways and Provinces illustrated
with maps, and al-Idrīsī constructed a world map in 1154 for theChristian king Roger of Sicily,
showing better information on Asian areas than had been available theretofore. In Baghdad
astronomers used the compass long before Europeans, studied the obliquity of the ecliptic, and
measured a part of the Earth's meridian. Their sexagesimal (based on 60) system has dominated
cartography since, in the concept of a 360-degree circle.

Hecataeus – a scholar of Miletus, probably produced the first book on geography in about 500 BC
Herodotus – a historian with geographic leanings, recorded, among other things, an early
circumnavigation of the African continent by Phoenicians. He also improved on the delineation of
the shape and extent of the then-known regions of the world, and he declared the Caspian to be
an inland sea, opposing the prevailing view that it was part of the “northern oceans”. He is the
Greek author of the first great narrative history produced in the ancient world, the History of the
Greco-Persian Wars.

Aristotle – formulated six arguments to prove that the Earth was, in truth, a sphere. From that
time forward, the idea of a spherical Earth was generally accepted among geographers and other
men of science.

Dicaearchus – a disciple of Aristotle, placed an orientation line on the world map, running east
and west through Gibraltar and Rhodes. Eratosthenes, Marinus of Tyre, and Ptolemy successively
developed the reference-line principle until a reasonably comprehensive system of parallels and
meridians, as well as methods of projecting them, had been achieved.

Claudius Ptolemaeus(Ptolemy) - an astronomer and mathematician, he spent many years

studying at the library in Alexandria, the greatest repository of scientific knowledge at that time.
His monumental work, the Guide to Geography (Geōgraphikē hyphēgēsis), was produced in eight
volumes. The first volume discussed basic principles and dealt with map projection and globe
construction. The next six volumes carried a list of the names of some 8,000 places and their
approximate latitudes and longitudes. Except for a few that were made by observations, the
greater number of these locations were determined from older maps, with approximations of
distances and directions taken from travelers. They were accurate enough to show relative
locations on the very small-scale, rudimentary maps that existed.
HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES:
The Reformation of cartography began with the longitude measurements of the French
academy at the end of the seventeenth century. We refer to the eighteenth century as the age
of reason: the spirit of the period is reflected in its maps. They are far less decorative, but
much more accurate, than their seventeenth century Dutch predecessors.
The greatest achievement of the West was the triangulation and topographic mapping of
France, directed by members of the Cassini family.
This series set the pattern for the national surveys at the nineteenth century. Large scale
topographic maps and charts of a nation can be produced only by a large organization. The
task of the independent cartographers was narrowed mostly to small scale maps, a division
which still persists.
The nineteenth century witnessed a great diversification of maps. Geologic, economic,
educational, transportation, and other maps required new approaches to the great
enrichment of cartography. New engraving processes, lithography, wax engraving,
photoengraving, and color printing made new techniques possible. Map making has become
concentrated in large governmental and private offices, producing maps by the millions,
reaching great masses of people.

American Cartography
The map of the American continent gradually emerged and by the eighteenth century a great
number of fairly detailed maps were available. These maps were American on subject only.
They were made by English, French, Dutch or Spanish cartographers. Colonial cartography
developed slowly in the eighteenth century. British and Spanish army officers produced many
excellent maps and some of these men were employed later by Washington and Jefferson,
both expert surveyors.
 In the early nineteenth century. Army explorers added much to the knowledge of the newly
acquired territories, and the older states were engaged in surveys that were more or less detailed.
Private map makers were busy publishing maps and school atlases. Outstanding is Henry S. Tanners
“New American Atlas” of 1823, published in Philadelphia. In the mid century, American cartography
was influenced by the introduction of wax engraving and lithography. The lithograph country atlases
are typical American Atlases.

Airplane Photography
Aerial photography makes it possible to map even the most accessible areas of the world with great
speed and accuracy. It enables us to see the earth from above, as the maps show it.

Basic Features of Maps

1. SCALE. The ration of a distance on a map to its corresponding distance on the ground. The most
common ways to represent the map scale are the fraction or ratio; the verbal statements; and the
graphical, or linear, representation.

a. Ratio. 1:10,000 or 1/10,000, one unit on the map is equal to 10,000 units on the
earth. Such as 1 centimeter on the map is equal to 10,000 cm. or 100 m. on the ground.

b. Verbal Statement. 1 cm. equals 100 meters

c. Graphical/Bar scale:

2. System of Projection – all computations, maps and plans submitted to the DENR for verification
and approval shall be prepared using the Philippine Plane Coordinate System (PPCS)/ Philippine
Reference System of 1992 (PRS 92).
3. Title – it designates the name of the land represented, the type of map, the scale, the year of
preparation, pertinent remarks, etc. In the typical survey plans, the title usually includes the
following:

a. purpose of the survey

b. name of owner or organization for whom the survey is made
c. location of the lot (barangay, municipality/city, province, island)
d. area of the lot
e. name of the geodetic engineer who executed the survey
f. contour interval
g. reference horizontal and vertical datum (if applicable)
h. scale used
i. meridian (magnetic, true, grid, etc.)
j. geodetic engineer’s notes

Titles should be constructed that they will readily catch the eye. The space occupied by the map
should be proportionate to the size of the map. Emphasis is placed on the most important parts of
the title by increasing their height and using upper case letters.

4. Lettering – a considerable proportion of the information presented on map is conveyed by the

lettered names. Lettering is a necessary addition for the identification of map’s features.

5. Notes and Legends – explanatory notes or legends are often of assistance in interpreting a
drawing. They should be as brief as circumstances will allow, but at the same time should include
sufficient information as to leave no doubt in the mind of the person using the drawing. A key to
the symbols representing various details ought to be shown unless the symbols are conventional .
6. Orientation – it refers to the direction, and if indicated, is usually shown at the top or at the
side of the title/subject of the map. On the map, direction is sometimes indicated by a compass
rose and sometimes by a north – pointing arrow.

7. Border lines – it adds to the appearance of a map to have a suitable border line. This may be a
single heavy line or double line, consisting of one heavy and one light line drawn close together.
The weight of the border lines should not be so heavy as to detract the attention from the map.

PLOTTING OF SURVEY PLANS

(ISOLATED AND SUBDIVISION)

1. The BL Survey Number is assigned by the Bureau of Lands (LMB/LMS). A survey symbol is
used to designate the various kinds of surveys.

2. A claimant may be an individual, a corporation or any recognized organization.

3. The site, barrio, municipality, province and island are indicated to locate the land.

4. Date of survey and approval are indicated.

5. A geodetic engineer signs the map.

6. Area is determined by Double Meridian Distance rounded off to the nearest whole number.
Use standard Lot Data Computation form to compute for the area.
7. Bearings may be grid, assumed, true or magnetic. True bearings, however, are more usual for
property surveys. If bearings are magnetic, the declination is indicated.

8. Both the graphic scale and representative fraction are indicated.

9. North-South line is drawn in standard form.

10. Lot corners are small circles 2mm in diameter drawn in black ink. Corners are numbered clockwise.
Numbers are inside the lot. Boundary lines don’t pass through the small circle.

11. The description of each corner as marked on the ground is written preferably at the bottom left
corner of the map. If this space is crowded, it is written in any open space.

12. Boundary lines are full black lines heavier than those adjoining properties. Bearing and distance of
each line are in black ink and may be written in either the following methods:

a. Bearing and distance along boundary line (inside the lot)

b. Tabulated bearings and distances (when features and distances are too numerous and bearings
and distances written along bondaries, will make the map crowded). The table is usually placed
in the upper left-hand corner of the map. If this space is crowded, the right-hand corner may be
used.

13. A point of reference has known geographic coordinates: latitude and longitude. Its Northing and
Easting may be true or assumed. A point of reference may be a triangulation station or Bureau of
Lands Location Monument (BLLM). This point is not shown on the map simply because it is far
from the area surveyed. A tie line is a line joining the point of reference and corner 1 of the lot.
There are two methods to write the description of the point of reference and the bearing and
distance of the tie line:
 a. Tabulated
b. Graphical (when there is open space)

14.Boundaries between adjoining surveyed properties are indicated by broken lines. Owner’s name
and BL Survey number are also indicated.

15. All important features and improvements (ex. Streams, rivers, bridges, roads) are drawn true to
scale, in black ink (without color) and represented by standard mapping symbols.
Width of roads and rivers are indicated. Direction of the flow of water on a river is indicated by
an arrow with the arrowhead in the direction of the flow.

16. Lettering must be simple, uniform and mechanical. Use of a lettering machine is imperative.

17. Lot numbers, corner numbers, notes, titles, etc. are drawn parallel to the horizontal axis of the
map. Names of rivers, roads, bridges and the like follow the shape of the feature. Sometimes,
names of adjoining owners follow the shape of the lot.

18. The central orthogonal axes and the coordinates of the center are drawn in red ink. Ncenter is
drawn slightly above the horizontal axis near the left edge of the map. Ecenter is drawn slightly to
the left of the vertical axis near the lower edge of the map. Ecenter is drawn vertically.
Plans are drawn on the authorized BL Form having the following dimensions:
19. If a lot is subdivided into several lots, the subdivided lots will be designated as A, B, C, etc.

20. The boundary, as in isolated surveys, has a Technical Description. In addition, each subdivided
lot has its own description. Tie lines are observed/computed to corner 1 of the boundary and
each of the subdivided lot. If the upper left or right-hand corners are not sufficient, technical
descriptions are placed on separate authorized sheets.
21. Numbering of lots:
For boundary:
Numbers are drawn clockwise outside the boundary and in red ink.

For subdivided lots:

Numbers are drawn clockwise inside the boundary and in black ink. The assignment of
corner 1 is discretionary unless the subdivided lot has a corner that is tied to a reference point.

22. Area of each subdivided lots must be indicated inside the lot. This area is not necessarily a
whole number.

23. Corners are plotted by the Coordinate Method.

MAP NAME PLACEMENT

1. Name should be aligned horizontally whenever possible.
Recommendation: Use regular grid as guide
Exception:
Align name with a straight-line feature that is not horizontal (e.g. road, pier, railroad)
Align name parallel to the lines of graticule
2. There should be sufficient space between the name and the related symbol.
Recommendation: There should be at least ½ upper case character space between the name and
the symbol

3. Name should not overlap with symbol

4. There should be unambiguous reference between the symbol and its associated name.
6. Locate the name within the territory to which it refers.
Exception:
If the name is placed outside a relatively linear feature, align the name along the
feature’s trend.
If the feature is compact, place the name horizontally beside it (but not on the
horizontal line).

7. Name should not be placed directly on top of the line to which it relates.
Recommendation:There should be sufficient space (at least ½ lower case character) between
the bottom of the name and its associated line symbol.

8. Names and numbers must not be positioned on sharp curves, but rather where the shape of a
feature is relatively smooth.

9. Words incorporating characters which reach below the normal baseline (eg. g, p, q, j) should be
positioned where bends in a line symbol make their placement appropriate or below the line.

10 . In areas which are congested with quantities of names and symbols, arrange names around
the highly detailed area.

12. Name should be adequately centered and should extend over the full area to which it should
refer.
Recommendation:
Name should stretch over approximately 2/3 of the area to which it relates.
Name should serve as a central axis of the region.
For long linear features, reduce spacing and repeat name.
12. Name referring to an area is normally placed horizontally.

13. Letters forming a name/title should be appreciated as a whole.

Recommendation: Size of type may be increased.

14. Arrange curved lettering along a regular baseline.

15. Names should cross at or as near to a right angle as much as possible.

16. Name relating to an area and having a straight baseline should not be positioned at an oblique
angle.
Recommendation: Use curved lettering.

17. Name should not be unnecessarily hyphenated and displayed on separate lines.

18. Names should read from the middle of the bottom edge of the map (not to be oriented
towards the other edges).
Exception: Vertical names (for road, railroads, etc.) should be turned so that it can be read from
the right side of the page.

19. Name should not fall across a line symbol.

Recommendation: Interrupt line so that the name is clearly visible.
Exception: Print line work without interruption when a line is very fine or has a lighter color.

20. Name should be placed above its associated symbol.

21. Names of harbors should be preferably toward the sea.

22. Do not spread the letters all along a river, but keep them close together. Name may be
repeated.

23. Names of lakes and islands can either be outside or inside, but only in an emergency is the
shoreline cut with the name.

24. Names of mountain ranges are spread along the crest line of the range and should follow
the main trend very exactly.

MAP PROJECTION

For the representation of the entire surface of the earth without any kind of distortion, a
map must have a spherical surface; a map of this kind is known as a globe. A flat map cannot
accurately represent the rounded surface of the earth except for very small areas where the
curvature is negligible. To show large portions of the earth's surface or to show areas of
medium size with accuracy, the map must be drawn in such a way as to compromise among
distortions of areas, distances, and direction.
The various methods of preparing a flat map of the earth's surface are known as
projections and are classified as geometric or analytic, depending on the technique of
development. Geometric projections are classified according to the type of surface on which
the map is assumed to be developed, such as cylinders, cones, or planes; plane projections are
also known as azimuthal or zenithal projections. Analytical projections are developed by
mathematical computation.
CRITERIA IN CHOOSING A MAP PROJECTION

1. AREA
Many map projections are designed to be equal area, that is, one part on the map covers
exactly the same area of the actual earth.
shapes, angles and scales must be distorted on most parts
other terms of equal area: equivalent, homolographic, homalographic, authalic,
equiareal

2. SHAPE
The shape of every small feature of the map is shown correctly
There are usually one or more “singular points at which the shape is still distorted.
Relative angles at each point are correct and the local scale in every direction around
any one point is constant.
Meridians intersect parallels at 90˚, just as they do on earth.

3. SCALE
Equidistance – scale between one or two points and every point on the map, or along every
meridian, is shown correctly.

No map projection show scales correctly throughout the map, but there is usually
one ormore lines on the map along which the scale remains true.

4. DIRECTION
Azimuthal or Zenithal – directions or azimuths of all points on the map are shown correctly
with respect to the center
KINDS OF MAP PROJECTION

A. Cylindrical Projection
In making a cylindrical projection, the cartographer regards the surface of the map as a
cylinder that encircles the globe, touching it at the equator. The parallels of latitude are
extended outward from the globe, parallel to the equator, as parallel planes intersecting the
cylinder. Because of the curvature of the globe, the parallels of latitude nearest the poles
when projected onto the cylinder are spaced progressively closer together, and the projected
meridians of longitude are represented as parallel straight lines, perpendicular to the equator
and continuing to the North and South poles. After the projection is completed, the cylinder is
assumed to be slit vertically and rolled out flat. The resulting map represents the world's
surface as a rectangle with equally spaced parallel lines of longitude and unequally spaced
parallel lines of latitude. The shapes of areas are increasingly distorted toward the poles, but
the size relationship of areas on the map is equivalent to the size relationship of areas on the
globe.

The familiar Mercator projection, developed mathematically by the Flemish geographer

Gerardus Mercator, is related to the cylindrical projection, with certain modifications. A
Mercator map is accurate in the equatorial regions but greatly distorts areas in the high
latitudes. Directions are represented faithfully, and this is especially valuable in navigation. Any
line cutting two or more meridians at the same angle is represented on a Mercator map as a
straight line. Such a line, called a rhumb line, represents the path of a ship or an airplane
following a steady compass course. Using a Mercator map, a navigator can plot a course simply
by drawing a line between two points and reading the compass direction from the map.
B. Azimuthal Projection

This group of map projections is derived by projecting the globe onto a plane that may be
tangent to it at any point. The group includes the gnomonic, orthographic, and stereographic
plane projections. Two other types of plane projections are known as the azimuthal equal area
and the azimuthal equidistant; they cannot be projected but are developed on a tangent plane.
The gnomonic projection is assumed to be formed by rays projected from the center of the
earth. In the orthographic projection the source of projecting rays is at infinity, and the
resulting map resembles the earth as it would appear if photographed from outer space. The
source of projecting rays for the stereographic projection is a point diametrically opposite the
tangent point of the plane on which the projection is made.
The nature of the projection varies with the source of the projecting rays. Thus the
gnomonic projection covers areas of less than a hemisphere, the orthographic covers
hemispheres, the azimuthal equal area and the stereographic projections map larger areas, and
the azimuthal equidistant includes the entire globe. In all these types of projection, however
(except in the case of the azimuthal equidistant), the portion of the earth that appears on the
map depends on the point at which the imaginary plane touches the earth. A plane-projection
map with the plane tangent to the surface of the earth at the equator would represent the
equatorial region, but would not show the entire region in one map; with the plane tangent at
either of the poles, the map would represent the polar regions.
Because the source of the gnomonic projection is at the center of the earth, all great
circles, that is, the equator, all meridians, and any other circles that divide the globe into two
equal parts, are represented as straight lines. A great circle that connects any two points on the
earth is always the shortest distance between the two points. The gnomonic map is therefore a
great aid to navigation when used in conjunction with the Mercator
C. Conic Projection

In preparing a conic projection a cone is assumed to be placed over the top of the globe.
After projection, the cone is assumed to be slit and rolled out to a flat surface. The cone
touches the globe at all points on a single parallel of latitude, and the resulting map is
extremely accurate for all areas near that parallel, but becomes increasingly distorted for all
other areas in direct proportion to the distance of the areas from the standard parallel.
To provide greater accuracy, the Lambert conformal conic projection assumes a cone that
passes through a part of the surface of the globe, intersecting two parallels. Because the
resulting map is accurate in the immediate vicinity of both parallels, the area represented
between the two standard parallels is less distorted than the same area reproduced by a single
conic projection.
The polyconic projection is a considerably more complicated projection in which a series
of cones is assumed, each cone touching the globe at a different parallel, and only the area in
the immediate vicinity of each parallel is used. By compiling the results of the series of limited
conic projections, a large area may be mapped with considerable accuracy. Because a cone
cannot be made to touch the globe in the extreme polar and equatorial regions, the various
conic projections are used to map comparatively small areas in the temperate zones. Polyconic
maps offer a good compromise in the representation of area, distance, and direction over small
areas.
CYLINDRICAL MAP PROJECTIONS
1. Mercator Projection
• conformal
• meridians are equally spaced straight lines
• parallels are unequally spaced straight lines, closest near the equator, cutting
meridians at right angles
• scale is true along the equator, or along two parallels equidistant from the
equator
• loxodromes, or rhumblines, are straight lines
• poles are at infinity; great distortion of area in polar regions; suitable for east
west extents
• used for navigation

4. Transverse Mercator
• Conformal
• Central meridian, each meridian 90˚ from central meridian, and equator are
straight lines
• Other meridians and parallels are complex curves
• Scale is true along central meridian, or along two straight lines equidistant from
and parallel to central meridian
• Scale becomes infinite at 90˚ from the central meridian
• Best for north-south extent maps

5. Universal Transverse Mercator

ellipsoidal transverse Mercator
between latitudes 84˚ N and 80˚ S, is divided into 60 zones, each generally 6˚ wide in
longitude
4. Oblique Mercator Projection

• The same as regular Mercator projection which has been altered by wrapping a
cylinder around the sphere so that it touches the surface along the great circle
path chosen for the central line, instead of along the earth’s equator

5. Miller Cylindrical Projection

• Resembles the Mercator projection but shows less exaggeration of area in higher
latitudes
• American version of Gall’s Projection
• Neither equal-area nor conformal (Aphylactic)
• Used only in spherical form
• Meridians and parallels are straight lines, intersecting at right angles
• Meridians are equidistant; parallels are spaced farther apart away from the
equator
• Poles are shown as lines
• Compromise between Mercator and other cylindrical projections

6. Equidistant Cylindrical Projection

• Probably the simplest of all map projections to construct and one of the oldest
• Other names: Rectangular, La Carte Parallelogrammatique, Die Rechteckige
Platkater, Equirectangular
7. Simple Cylindrical
• If the equator is made of standard parallel, true to scale and free of distortion,
the meridians are spaced at the same distances as the parallels, and the
graticules appear as squares.

• Aphylactic
• Meridians and parallels are equidistant straight lines, intersecting at right
angles
• Poles are shown as lines
• Used in spherical form

CONIC MAP PROJECTIONS

1. Albers Equal-Area
• Equal area form of conic projection using two standard parallels
• Scale along the parallels is too small between the standard parallels and too
large beyond them
• Parallels are unequally spaced arcs of concentric circles, more closely spaced at
the north and the south edges of the map
• Meridians are equally spaced radii of the same circles, cutting parallels at right
angles
• There is no distortion in scale or shape along two standard parallels, normally,
or along just one
• Poles are arc of great circles
• East-west expanse
2. Lambert Conformal Conic
• Also called Conical Orthomorphic
• Parallels are unequally spaced arcs of concentric circles, more closely spaced at
the north and the south edges of the map
• Meridians are equally spaced radii of the same circles, cutting parallels at right
angles
• Scale is true along two standard parallels, normally, or along just one
• Pole in the same hemisphere as standard parallel is a point; other pole is at
infinity
• Conformity fails at each point
• East-west expanse
• No angular distortion at any parallels, except at the poles

3. Bipolar Oblique Conic Conformal

• Two oblique conic projections, side by side, but with poles 104° apart
• Meridians and parallels are complex curves, intersecting at right angles
• Scale is true along two standard transformed parallels on each conic projection,
neither of these lines following any geographical meridian or parallel
• Very small deviation from conformality, where the two conic projections join
• Specially developed for a map of the Americas
• Used only in spherical form
4. Polyconic Projection
• Curvature of the circular arc for each of the parallel on the map is the same as it
would be following the unrolling of a cone which had wrapped around the globe
tangent to the particular parallel of latitude, with the parallel traced onto the cone
• Instead of a single cone, a series of conical surfaces may be used
• For the sphere, each parallel has a radiusproportional to the cotangent of latitude
• Aphylactic
• Parallels of latitude (except for equator) are arcs of circles but ore not concentric
• Central meridian and equator are straight line; all other meridians are complex
curves
• Scale is true along each parallel and along the central meridian, but no parallel is
:standard”
• Free of distortion only along the central meridian

AZIMUTHAL PROJECTIONS
• Orthographic
• Stereographic
• Gnomonic
• Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area

OTHER PROJECTIONS
• Heterodral Projection
• Cassini
• Star Projection
• Bonne
• Sinusoidal
MAPS AND PLANS OF SURVEYS

STANDARD BASE MAPS

MAPS AND PLANS OF ALL LAND SURVEYS IN THE PHILIPPINES SHALL BE PLOTTED ON
APPROPRIATE STANDARD BASE MAPS PROJECTED UPON SPHEROIDAL QUADRANGLE OF
CLARKE’S SPHEROID OF 1866. (SEC.349 DAO NO. 98–12 S. 1998)

THE STANDARD BASE MAPS OF THE PHILIPPINES SHALL BE CLASSIFIED INTO: (SEC.350, DAO
NO. 98–12 S. 1998)
- CADASTRAL MAPS (CM)
- BARANGAY BOUNDARY AND INDEX MAPS (BBIM)
- MUNICIPAL BOUNDARY AND INDEX MAPS (MBIM)
- MUNICIPAL BASE MAPS
- PROVINCIAL BASE MAPS
- REGIONAL BASE MAPS

CADASTRAL MAPS
THE CADASTRAL MAPS SHALL COMPRISE AREAS WITHIN SPHEROIDAL QUADRANGLE OF
ONE MINUTE OF ARC IN LATITUDE AND ONE MINUTE OF ARC IN LONGITUDE AND SHALL BE
DRAWN IN THE PHILIPPINE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM (PPCS) – PRS 92 TO THE STANDARD
SCALE OF 1:4000 ON DRAFTING MATERIAL OF STABLE BASE OF UNIFORM SIZE OF
APPROXIMATELY 54 x 54 CENTIMETERS. SECTIONAL CADASTRAL MAPS SHALL BE DRAWN ON
LARGER SCALES ON THE SAME MATERIALS AND OF THE SAME SIZE AS THE STANDARD
CADASTRAL MAPS TO SHOW TRACTS OF LAND WHICH OTHERWISE WILL APPEAR TOO SMALL
ON THE STANDARD SCALE OF 1:4000
 THE SECTIONAL CADASTRAL MAPS SHALL BE IN THE SCALE OF 1:2000; 1:1000;
1:500; 1:250 AND SHALL COMPRISE AREAS WITHIN SPHEROIDAL QUADRANGLES OF THIRTY
SECONDS, FIFTEEN SECONDS, SEVEN AND ONE HALF SECONDS OR THREE AND ONE-
FOURTH SECONDS OF ARC, RESPECTIVELY. (SEC.351, DAO NO. 98–12 S. 1998)

CONTIGUOUS CADASTRAL MAPS (CCM) CONSISTING OF FOUR OR SIXTEEN

SHEETS, SHALL BE DRAWN ON A SINGLE SHEET OF THE SAME MATERIAL AND SIZE AS THE
STANDARD CADASTRAL MAP IN THE SCALE OF 1:8000 OR 1:16000, RESPECTIVELY, TO SHOW
PARCELS WHICH WOULD BE TOO BIG ON THE STANDARD SCALE OF 1:4000. XXXXXX
(SEC.354, DAO NO. 98–12 S. 1998)

ISOLATED SURVEY PLANS

IN ALL LOTS OF ISOLATED LAND SURVEYS WITH AREAS ON ONE HECTARE OR

MORE, THE APPROXIMATE BOUNDARY OF THE AREA UNDER CULTIVATION AND THE
NATURE OF ITS VEGETATION SUCH AS RICE, PASTURES, WOODS, ETC. WITH A BRIEF
DESCRIPTION OF THE TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES SUCH AS PLAIN, ROLLING, HILLY OR
MOUNTAINOUS SHALL BE INDICATED IN LIGHT BLACK DOTTED LINES.

FOR LOTS LESS THAN ONE HECTARE IN AREA, A GENERAL CLASSIFICATION, SUCH
AS “RESIDENTIAL LOT”, “HOME LOT”, “RICE LAND”, “SUGAR CANE LAND”, “COMMERCIAL
LOT” SHALL BE INDICATED ON SAID PLANS. FOR A GROUP OF LOTS SHOWN ON ONE PLAN
IN DIMINUTIVE GEOMETRICAL FIGURES, A NOTATION ON THE PLAN REGARDING THE
TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES AND/OR GENERAL CLASSIFICATION FOR EACH LOT IS SUFFICIENT
IN BOTH CASES.
 IRRESPECTIVE OF THE AREA, PERMANENT STRUCTURES SUCH AS BUILDINGS
WITH CONCRETE FOUNDATION, STONE WALL, ETC., SHALL BE INDICATED BY DOTTED BLACK
LINES ON THE PLANS AND MAPS. (SEC. 379, DAO NO. 98-12 S. 1998)

XXXXXXXXX. FOR UNIFORMITY IN THE PREPARATION OF ISOLATED SURVEY

PLANS, ONLY INFORMATION THAT CANNOT BE INSCRIBED ON THE PLAN SHALL BE
INDICATED ON THE SPACE PROVIDED FOR “NOTES” AT THE BOTTOM LEFT CORNER. THESE
ARE:

1. DESCRIPTION OF CORNERS AS XXXXXXXXXX

2. ADVERSE CLAIMS AS XXXXXXXXX

3.RELATION WITH ANY CADASTRAL OR PUBLIC LAND SUBDIVISION SURVEY

PROJECT OR RESERVATION (IF SURVEY IS NEAR A KNOWN RESERVATION), AS
XXXXXXXXX

4. IF LOT IS A PORTION OF UNDECREED CADASTRAL LOT, THE CADASTRAL LOT

NUMBER PERTAINING TO SAID PORTION, AS:
LOT 7=LOT 5000, CAD-69

5. CLASSIFICATION OF LOT, AS:

A) FOR SURVEY INSIDE CLASSIFIED / UNCLASSIFIED FOREST: THIS SURVEY IS

WITHIN CLASSIFIED / UNCLASSIFIED FOREST AND THEREFORE SHALL NOT BE
THE BASIS FOR REGISTRATION OR TITLING PURPOSES
 B. FOR ORIGINAL SURVEY: THIS SURVEY IS INSIDE THE ALIENABLE AND
DISPOSABLE AREA, BLOCK 1, PROJECT NO. 25, LAND CLASSIFICATION MAP NO. 329
FOR THE PROVINCE OF LAGUNA.

THE SURVEY WAS APPROVED BASED ON THE INVESTIGATION REPORT

SUBMITTED BY DEPUTY PUBLIC LAND INVESTIGATOR (NAME) DATED
___________.

C. FOR COMPLEX SUBDIVISION: THIS SUBDIVISION SURVEY IS IN CONFORMITY

WITH THE APPROVED SUBDIVISION SCHEME.
(SEC.378, DAO 98-12 S. 1998)

BUFFER ZONES WITHIN FOREST LANDS

A) TWENTY-METERS STRIPS OF LAND ALONG THE EDGE OF NORMAL HIGH

WATERLINE ON RIVERS AND STREAMS WITH CHANNELS OF AT LEAST FIVE (5)
WIDE OR EVEN LESS THAN FIVE (5) METERS IF CONTINUOUSLY FLOWING;

B) STRIP OF LAND AT LEAST FIFTY (50) METERS IN WIDTH FRONTING THE SEA,
OCEAN OR OTHER BODIES OF WATER AND 20 METERS ON BOTH SIDES OF RIVER
CHANNL/BANK MAINTAINED AND DEVELOPED TO ENHANCE THE PROTECTIVE
CAPABILITY OF MANGROVE AGAINST STRONG CURRENTS, WINDS AND HIGH
WAVES;

C) IN STORM-PRONE AREAS, MANGROVE FOREST STRIPS OF 100 METERS

WIDE INWARD ALONG SHORELINE FRONTING THE SEAS, OCEANS AND OTHER
BODIES OF WATER AND 50 METERS STRIP RIVER BANK PROTECTION;
D) TWENTY METERS STRIP OF LAND OUTSIDE THE BOUNDARIES AND
IMMEDIATELY ADJACENT TO DESIGNATED PROTECTED AREAS;

E) TWENTY METERS STRIP OF LAND ALONG THE BOUNDARIES OF

REFORESTATION PROJECTS ADJACENT TO PRIVATE/ALIENABLE OR DISPOSABLE
LANDS; AND

F) A BUFFER ZONE OF 100 METERS OF RESIDUAL FOREST SHALL BE ESTABLISHED

IMMEDIATELY SURROUNDING THE OLD GROWTH FOREST STANDS. HOWEVER,
WHEN THE OLD GROWTH FOREST STAND IS ADJACENT TO NATURAL GROUND
FEATURES SUCH AS WATERWAYS (RIVERS, STREAMS, CREEKS), GULLIES, OR
RIDGE TOPS, THESE SHALL BE USED AS BOUNDARIES. (DAO 13, S. 1992; SEC. 668,
DAO 98-12 S. 1998)