MICROWAVE SYSTEM

DESIGN
Link Budget Calculation

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 Objectives
• Define Link Budget
• Discuss the different parameters involved
on link budget.
• Derive the formula for free space loss and
antenna gain
• Explain fade margin.
• Solve sample problems.

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 Link Budget

Once a path has been established to

be free of obstruction and reflection points,
the link budget is then computed.

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Link Budget or Path Calculation
- the summary of all possible losses and
gains that a signal may encounter along a
microwave path.

- it shows how reliable the link is.

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 Link Budget
The simplest method of calculating a link
budget is to only consider the fixed losses
and gains.

(Fixed because they do not change with

climate or time of the year.)

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 Power Level Gains Losses
[dBm] [dB] [dB]
Tx Power at radio
equipment output flange
Tx branching filter
Tx feeder
Other Tx losses
Power at antenna input
Tx antenna gain
Propagation losses :
Free Space
Obstruction
Atmospheric Absorption
Other
Rx Antenna gain
Power at antenna output
Rx feeder
Rx branching filter
Other Rx losses
Nominal Rx Power at radio ECOMTE 4 6
equipment input flange ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
 Power Level Diagram

Tx GTx Rx

FSL
PT GRx
LTx RSL
LRx

IRL
Tx Parameters Path Parameters Rx Parameters

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 Transmit Parameters
A. Transmitter power
• Taken from the data sheet
(specifications) of the microwave
radio equipment.

• This is the amount of microwave

carrier output power, usually
expressed in dBm.
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 Transmit Parameters
In dBW In dBm

PT = 10 log (PT/1W) PT = 10 log (PT/1mW)

PT = transmitter power output in Watts

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 Transmit Parameters
B. Transmitter Transmission Line Loss (dB)

LT(dB) = (dB/length) x (L + allowance)

where :
(dB/length) =cable attenuation
= specs (dB/ft or dB/m)
L = total length of transmission line, ft or m

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 Transmit Parameters
C. Transmitter Antenna Gain
• Taken from the data sheet
(specifications) of the parabolic dish.

• This amount of gain, usually expressed

in dB is the amount of increase the
signal density undergoes when focused
into a pencil beam.

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 Transmit Parameters
C. Transmitter Antenna Gain

General Formula : GT =  D 2


2
GT = 6 D

where :  = VC/f
 = efficiency of antenna (0.55-0.65)
D = diameter of antenna

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 Transmit Parameters
C. Transmitter Antenna Gain

GT(dB) = 7.5 + 20 log fGHZ + 20 log Dft

GT(dB) = 17.8 + 20 log fGHZ + 20 log Dm

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 Transmit Parameters
D. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

a.In Watts

Ideal : EIRP = PT x GT

Practical : EIRP = (PT x GT)/LT

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 Transmit Parameters
D. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

a.In dB

Ideal : EIRP(dBW) = PT(dB) + GT(dB)

Practical : EIRP(dBW) = (PT(dB) + GT(dB))-LT(dB)

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 Transmit Parameters
E. Other Losses

1. Connector Loss (Wave guide Loss)

2. Hybrid/ Combiner Loss
3. Radome Loss
4. Antenna Misalignment Loss

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 Path Parameters

Tx Path Losses Rx
Free Space Loss
Rain Loss
Atmospheric Loss
Diffraction Loss
Clutter Loss

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 Path Parameters
A. Free Space Loss (FSL)

• The loss incurred by an

electromagnetic wave as it propagates in
straight line through vacuum with no
absorption or reflection of energy from
nearby objects.

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 Path Parameters
A. Free Space Loss (FSL)

• Computed from the formula.

• This amount of loss expressed in dB, is

how much the signal density reduces as
it travels in free space.

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 Free Space Loss (FSL)
FSL(dB) = 96.6 + 20 log D(mi) +20 log f(GHz)

FSL(dB) = 92.4 + 20 log D(Km) +20 log f(GHz)

FSL(dB) = 32.4 + 20 log D(Km) +20 log f(MHz)

where:
f = operating frequency
D = path distance

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 Example
1. For a carrier frequency of 6 GHz and
distance of 50 Km, determine the free
space path loss.

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 Path Parameters
B. Isotropic Receive Level (IRL)

IRL(dBW) = EIRP(dBW) – FSL(dB)

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 Receive Parameters
A. Antenna Gain
• Taken from the data sheet
(specifications) of the parabolic dish.

• This amount of gain, usually expressed

in dB is the amount of increase the
signal density undergoes when focused
back into the waveguide.
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 Receive Parameters
B. Receiver Transmission Line Loss

- in dB

- typically the same with Tx line loss

otherwise specified

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 Receive Parameters
C. Net Path Loss (NPL)

General Solution NPL(dB) = Total Gain -Total losses

In dB NPL(dB) = (GTx(dB) + GRx(dB))

-(LTx(dB) + FSL(dB))

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 Receive Parameters
D. Receive Signal Level (RSL)
• Computed from the formula.

• This is the amount of input signal into the receiver

from the waveguide.

• Mathematically, it is the sum of all losses and gains

on the transmitter output.

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 Receive Signal Level (RSL)
• In terms of output power and Net Path Loss

RSL(dBm) = Po(dBm) + NPL(dB)

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 Received Signal Level (RSL)
RSL(dBm) = Po + Total system gain
– Total System loss

RSL(dBm) = Po – LTx + GTx– FSL +GRx– LRx

- other losses

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 Example
An FM LOS microwave link operates at 6.15
GHz. The required receiver IF bandwidth is 20 MHZ.
The transmitter output power is 30 dBm. The
receiver front end’s first active stage is a mixer with a
noise figure of 9 dB. The path length is 25 mi; the
antennas at each end have a 35-dB gain and the
transmission line losses at each end are 3 dB. Solve
for
a. EIRP
b. FSL
c. IRL
d. RSL ECOMTE 4 29
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 Noise Threshold (Rs)
In dBW N(dBW) = 10 log (PN) + NF dB

N(dBW) = -204 +10 log BHz + NF dB

In dBm N(dBm) = 10 log (PN/1mW) + NF dB

N(dBm) = -174 +10 log B + NF dB

N(dBm) = -104 +10 log BMHz + NF dB

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FM Improvement Threshold (IT)
The point where capture effects’ takes
place and the output signal-to-noise ratio
suddenly jumps to 30 dB.

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FM Improvement Threshold (IT)

In dBW IT(dBW) = N(dBW) + 10 dB

In dBm IT(dBm) = N(dBm) + 10 dB

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 Carrier-to-Noise Ratio
The ratio of the minimum wideband carrier
power at the input that will provide a
usable power baseband output to the
wideband noise power present at the input
of a receiver, the noise introduce within the
receiver, and the noise sensitivity of the
baseband detector.

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 Carrier-to-Noise Ratio

C
= RSL(dBm) - NdB
N

Note:
AM: C/N = S/N
FM: S/N about 30 dB larger than C/N (“FM IT”)
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 Fade Margin
A “fudge factor” included in the system
gain equation that considers that
considers the non ideal and less
predictable characteristics of radiowave
propagation, such as multipath
propagation and terrain sensitivity.

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 Fade Margin
1. Thermal Fade Margin
2. Dispersive Fade Margin
3. Interference Fade Margin

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 Thermal Fade Margin
• Solving for the thermal fade margin
requires identifying the configuration of the
microwave radio used.

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 Rayleigh Table
Propagation Reliability (%) Required Fade Margin(dB)
90 8
99 18
99.9 28
99.99 38
99.999 48
99.9999 58
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 Fade Margin
In terms of RSL and Rx sensitivity /Rx threshold

FMdB = RSL – Rs

where: Rs = receiver sensitivity or receiver

threshold which is provided in specification
sheets

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 Fade Margin
In terms of RSL and IT

In dB FM(dB) = RSL(dBW) - IT

In dBm FM(dBm) = RSL(dBm) - IT

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 Fade Margin
In terms of propagation parameters

FMdB = 30 log dkm +10 log (6abfGHz) -10 log (1-R) -70

where: a = surface factor

b = climate factor

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 Fade Margin
In terms of propagation parameters non diversity
outage probability/ unavailability

Undp = 2.5abfD3 (10-FM/10) (10-6)

where: Undp = non diversity outage probability/ unavailability

a = surface factor
b = climate factor
f = operating frequency in GHz
D =- path distance in miles
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 Fade Margin
Surface factor (a) Description

4.0 For very smooth terrain,

over water, desert
3.0 For average terrain with
some roughness
0.25 For mountainous, very
rough, or very dry terrain
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 Fade Margin
Climate factor (a) Description

0.5 For hot, humid coastal

areas
0.25 For normal, interior
temperature
0.125+ For mountainous orvery
dry but not reflective
terrain
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 Dispersive Fade Margin
• The average depth of multipath fade which
may cause the link to go down.

• This depends on equipment itself and

path conditions

• Equipment specifications may give the

actual dispersive fade margin itself, or the
average depth of multipath fade.
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 Dispersive Fade Margin
S = 2 x f x e(-B/3.8)
FMD = 17.6 – 10 log(S/158.4)

where: B = Average depth of multipath fade

f = channel bandwidth
FMD = dispersive fade margin

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 Dispersive Fade Margin
• If not given in specification sheet, we may
assume the value based on the following guide:

No Equalizer regardless of modulation- 30 to 50 dB

Adaptive Transversal Equalizer present, Modulation
QPSK/QAM
E1 to 4 x E1 – 80 to 90 dB
4 x E1 to 8 x E1 – 70 to 80 dB
16 x E1 to E3 – 50 to 70 dB
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 Dispersive Fade Margin
• Dispersive Fade Factor
Ground Type
Terrain Roughness
Obstruction Clearance
Path Length
Climate conditions

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 Dispersive Fade Margin
To factor these parameters in the fade
margin, a dispersive fade factor is used:

Good propagation conditions = 0.5 to 1

Average propagation conditions = 1 to 3
Difficult propagation conditions = 5 to 7
Extremely difficult propagation conditions = 8 to 9

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 Interference Fade Margin
• The electromagnetic conditions along the path
that can cause the link to go down.

• Based on congestions of systems within the path

using the same band of frequencies.

• It depends both on the characteristics of the

receiver and the conditions of the path.

• It may be viewed as additional losses in free

space which causes the signal fade
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 Example
An FM LOS microwave link operates at 6.15
GHz. The required receiver IF bandwidth is 20
MHZ. The transmitter output power is 30 dBm.
The receiver front end’s first active stage is a
mixer with a noise figure of 9 dB. The path
length is 25 mi; the antennas at each end have
a 35-dB gain and the transmission line losses
at each end are 3 dB. If the FM Improvement
threshold is used as the unfaded reference,
solve for
a. Noise threshold
b. FMIT
c. Carrier-to-Noise Ratio
d. Fade Margin
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 Example
Given a 25-mi path with average terrain
but with some roughness in an inland
temperature climate, and a link operating
at aa frequency of 6.7 GHz with a desired
propagation reliability of 99.95%, what
fade margin should be assigned to the
link?

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 Seatwork
1. An FM LOS microwave link operates at 6.150
GHz. The required receiver bandwidth is 20
MHz. The transmitter output power at the
flange is 1W. The receiver front end’s first
active stage is a mixer with a noise figure of 9
dB and is preceded by a bandpass filter with
an insertion loss of 0.5 dB. The path length is
21 mi; the antennas at each end have a 35 dB
gain and the transmission line losses at each
end are 3 dB. If the FM improvement threshold
is used as the unfaded reference, what fade
margin is available. (taken from midterm exam)

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 Rain Losses
• To be added to Thermal Fade Margin

• Crane Method
– effective only for path lengths up
to about 22.5 km.

2. CCIR Recc 530

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Rain Losses (CRANE Method)
Regression coefficient table
Frequency kH kV αV αH
GHz
1 0.0000387 0.0000352 0.912 0.880
2 0.0001540 0.0001380 0.963 0.923
4 0.0006500 0.0005910 1.121 1.075
6 0.0017500 0.0015500 1.308 1.265
7 0.0030100 0.0026500 1.332 1.312
8 0.0045400 0.0039500 1.327 1.310
10 0.0101000 0.0088700 1.276 1.264
12 0.0188000 0.016800 1.217 1.20
15 0.0367000 0.0335000 1.154 1.128
20 0.0751 0.0691 1.099 1.065
25 0.124 0.113 1.061 1.030
30 0.187 0.167 1.021 1.000
35 0.263 0.233 0.979 0.963
40 0.350 0.310
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 Rain Losses (CRANE Method)
• Compute for the values of k and α based
on both duplex transmit frequencies
selected.
Interpolation Formula used:

NOTE:
f1 < fx < f2
k1 < kx < k2
a1 < ax < a2

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 Rain Losses (CRANE Method)
Determine the attenuation formula based
on the rainfall rate at the appropriate region
of the link and the availability requirements.

d = 3.8 – 0.6 x Ln(RP)

RP = Crane rainfall rate( taken from the table)

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 Rain Losses (CRANE Method)
CRANE Rain Climate Regions
Link
Availability, Rain Rate Polar Temperate Continental Sub tropical Tropical
(link
Exceeded % outage) Dry Moderate Maritime D Wet Arid moderate wet
% A B C D1 D2 D3 E F G H

99.999 0.001 28.0 54.0 80.0 90.0 102.0 127.0 164.0 66.0 129.0 251.0

99.998 0.002 24.0 40.0 62.0 72.0 86.0 107.0 144.0 51.0 109.0 220.0

99.995 0.005 19.0 26.0 41.0 50.0 64.0 81.0 117.0 34.0 85.0 178.0

99.99 0.01 15.0 19.0 28.0 37.0 49.0 63.0 98.0 23.0 67.0 147.0

99.98 0.02 12.0 14.0 18.0 27.0 35.0 48.0 77.0 14.0 51.0 115.0
99.95 0.05 8.0 9.5 11.0 16.0 22.0 31.0 52.0 8.0 33.0 77.8
99.9 0.1 6.5 6.8 7.2 11.0 15.0 22.0 35.0 5.5 22.0 51.0
99.8 0.2 4.0 4.8 4.8 7.5 9.5 14.0 21.0 3.2 14.0 31.0
99.5 0.5 2.5 2.7 2.8 4.0 5.2 7.0 8.5 1.2 7.0 13.0
99 1 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.2 3.0 4.0 4.0 0.8 3.7 6.4
98 2 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.8 2.5 2.0 0.4 1.6 2.8

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 Rain Losses (CRANE Method)
• Compute for certain variable to be used
later in the computation of rain attenuation:

b = 2.3 x Rp -0.17
c = 0.026 – 0.03 x Ln(RP)

 = ln(b x ecd)
d

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 Rain Losses (CRANE Method)
• For conditions that the path length is less
than d :
ARain = kx * RP * [(exD – 1)/(x)]

• For conditions that the path length greater

than d but shorter or equal to 22.5 km:
ARain = kx * RP * {[(exD – 1)/(x)]
-[bcx exd)/(cx )]-[bcx exD)/(cx )]}
D = Path length in kilometers
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 Rain Losses (CCIR Recc 530)
CCIR Climatic Zones Table
Rainfall intensity exceeded in mm/h

% of
Time A B C D E G H J K L M N P

1.000% 0.5 1 2 3 1 3 2 8 2 2 4 5 12

0.300% 1 2 3 5 3 7 4 13 6 7 11 15 34

0.100% 2 3 5 83 6 12 10 20 12 15 22 35 65

0.030% 5 6 9 13 12 20 18 28 23 33 40 65 105

0.010% 8 12 15 19 22 30 32 35 42 60 63 95 140

0.003% 14 21 26 29 41 45 55 45 70 105 95 140 200

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0.001% 22 32 42 42 ENGR.
70 J.G.SALDIVAR
65 83 55 100 150 120 180 250
 Rain Losses (CCIR Recc 530)
• Determine from the climatic zone table the
rainfall rate based on the location and design
availability requirement.
• Determine the effective rain path length.

• Where: DE = Effective Rain Path Length

• R0.01 = Rainfall Rate at 0.01% outage

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 Rain Losses (CCIR Recc 530)
• Calculate the rain unit attenuation

• The most practical availability values are

between 0.001 to 1. The above mentioned
formula are only effective within this range.
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Example (For LBTf 12.82 GHzand HBTf = 13.08 GHz)
LBF:
M = log10 12 - log10 12.89
log10 12 - log10 15
= 0.32106239514
= 0.32
HBF:
M = log10 12 - log10 13.156
log10 12 - log10 15
= 0.4121619379
= 0.412

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 Example
LBF:
kx = log10-1 (log10 0.0335 – 0.321) ( log10 0.0335
– log10 0.0168)
= 0.0268429167
= 0.0268
HBF:
kx = log10-1 (log10 0.0335 – 0.412) ( log10 0.0335 –
log10 0.0168)
= 0.0252088928
= 0.0252

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 Example
LBF:
αx = 1.154 - (0.032) ( 1.154 – 1.217)
= 1.174223
= 1.174
HBF:
αx = 1.154 - (0.412) ( 1.154 – 1.217)
= 1.179956
= 1.18
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 Example
D0 = 35 x e –0.015R0.01
= 35 x e –0.015(180)
= 2.3521
DE = 25
1 + 25
2.3521
DE = 2.14983493

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 Example
LBF:
γ = 0.0268 x ( 180) 1.174223
= 11.9076131
= 11.908
HBF:
γ = 0.0252 x ( 180) 1.179956
= 11.55106684
= 11.551
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 Example
LBF:
A= 2.15 x 11.908
= 25.6022
= 25.602 dB
HBF:
A = 2.15 x 11.551
= 24.83465
= 24.8351 dB
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 Atmospheric Losses
(To be added to thermal fade margin)

1. Oxygen Absorption Loss (A0)

Attenuation due to the absorption of radio
frequency energy by oxygen molecules in the
atmosphere is given by the formula:

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 Atmospheric Losses
2. WATER VAPOR LOSS (AH2O)
Attenuation due to the absorption of
radio frequency energy by water vapor in
the atmosphere is given by the formula:

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Microwave System Performance
1. System Gain

The difference between the nominal

output power of a transmitter and the
minimum input power required by a
receiver.

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Microwave System Performance
1. System Gain

Gs = Po(dBW) – Threshold(dBW)

Gs = Po(dBm) – Threshold(dBm)

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Microwave System Performance
2. System Reliability

The percentage of time a system or link

meets performance requirements.

R = (1 – outage) x 100%

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Microwave System Performance
For multi-hop link

Rs = R1 x R2 x R3 … Rn

where:
outage = is the amount of time that the
requirements will not be meet
R1 , R2 , R3 … Rn = individual reliability

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 Reliability Calculations
1. KQ Factor
2. KQ Factor with terrain roughness
3. Vigants-Barnett
4. CCIR Recommendation 530

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 Reliability Calculations
• For the first three method, initially establish the
roughness of the terrain.
• Take the standard deviation of regular increments of
the path.
M = Average elevation above MSL
n
M = 1/n  xi
i=1

S = Standard deviation of the elevation in the path

n
[1/n( xi2) – M2]
i=1
n= # of path length subdivisions between 2 end stations
M = average elevation within the path
ECOMTE 4 77
S = standard ENGR.within
deviation J.G.SALDIVAR
the path
 KQ Reliability Calculation

where: K-Q = regional K-Q value

f = frequency in GHz
d = path length in km
b,c = regional climatic factor
FMeff = Effective Fade Marginaaa
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KQ-Reliability With Terrain
Roughness

where: K-Q = regional K-Q value

f = frequency in GHz
d = path length in km
b, c = regional climatic factor
FMeff= Effective Fade Margin
S = standard deviation of the terrain
elevation
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Vigrants-Barnette Calculation

where: C = C-factor Value

cf = Climatic Factor
S = Roughness Factor
f =frquency in GHz
d = path length in km

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 CCIR Recc. 530 Calculation

where: h1 h2 = antenna height above MSL in meters

D = path length in Kilometers (25 in our design)

Average Grazing Angle

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 CCIR Recc. 530 Calculation

b= 2 x [ √m+1/ m x 3 ] x cos [∏/3 + [1/3 x

cos-1 [3c/2 √3m/ (m+3)3 ]]]

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 CCIR Recc. 530 Calculation
• Geoclimatic Factor

• CCIR Rec. 530 Unavailability

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 Reliability Vs. Outage Time Table
Reliability Outage time Outage time
% % Per year Per month Per day
0 100 8760 hr 720 hr 24 hr
50 50 4380 hr 360 hr 12 hr
80 20 1752 hr 144 hr 4.8 hr
90 10 876 hr 72 hr 2.4 hr
95 5 438 hr 36 hr 1.2 hr
98 2 175 hr 14 hr 29 min
99 1 88 hr 7 hr 14 min
99.9 0.1 8.8 hr 43 min 1.4 min
99.99 0.01 53 min 4.3 min 88.6 s
99.999 0.001 5.3 min 26 s 0.86 s

ECOMTE 4 84
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
Microwave System Performance
Availability

MTBF
A= x 100 %
MTBF + MTTR

ECOMTE 4 85
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
Microwave System Performance
MTBR = Mean Time Before Failure
- The time before a brand new oiece of
equipment experiences failure due to old
age and natural degradation.

ECOMTE 4 86
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
Microwave System Performance
MTTR = Mean Time To Repair
- The time required to get a system up
and running after failure.
- The time it took to detect failure, to
remove and replace faulty parts, the
availability of spare equipment for
replacement, the time for installers/service
engineers to get to the site.

ECOMTE 4 87
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
Microwave System Performance
Unavailability

MTTR
U= x 100%
MTBF + MTTR

U = (1-A) x 100 %

ECOMTE 4 88
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
Microwave System Performance
Note:

Higher value for MTBF is better

Lower failure rate is better

ECOMTE 4 89
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
Reliability-Path Length- Antenna Size

ECOMTE 4 90
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
 Reliability-Path Length- Antenna Size

Factors that affect reliability

1.Path Length – Inversely proportional:
as the path length increases, it becomes
harder to maintain a high degree of
reliability.
2. Antenna Size – Directly proportional:
The larger antenna used, the larger the gain.

ECOMTE 4 91
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
Reliability-Path Length- Antenna Size

3. Fade Margin – Directly proportional:

The larger the Fade Margin, the higher the
reliability.
4. Frequency – Inversely proportional:
The higher frequency used, the lower the
reliability.

ECOMTE 4 92
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
 Reliability-Path Length- Antenna Size
5. Redundancy (protection) – Directly
proportional: When a link is backed-up with a
hot standby or with diversity, the chances of
loss of signal due to equipment failure or
multipath fading is reduced.
6. Signal Processing Equipment – Directly
proportional: when specialized circuits are
added to remove noise, correct phase
distortions, compensate for fading of signal and
correct bits of error on the composite bit stream,
the reliability is increased.
ECOMTE 4 93
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
 Example
What fade margin is required for a
microwave LOS link with a time availability
requirements of 99.997 %?

ECOMTE 4 94
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
 Link Budget
Once all parameters to the link have
been calculated, place the information in a
link budget data sheet.

ECOMTE 4 95
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR
 Microwave Path Data Sheet
Customer: _______________________________________________
Project Number:
Capacity:
Frequency Band Used:
Low Band Frequency:
High Band Frequency:
Equipment:
Site A: ___________
Site B:
Path Length:
Site Information Site A Site B
Longitude: ___________ __________
Latitude: ___________ __________
Site Elevation (Above MSL):
Tower Height:
Azimuth: ___________ ___________
Equipment Information
Transmitter Output Power:
Receiver Input Threshold:
Waveguide Length:
Waveguide Unit Attenuation:
Waveguide Loss:
Connector Loss:
Antenna Gain:
Antenna Misalignment:
Path Losses LBF HBF

Fade Margins

Path Reliability

ECOMTE 4 96
ENGR. J.G.SALDIVAR