4.

Tri-axial Method-
• L. A. Palmer and E. S. Barber in 1990 proposed the design method
based on Boussinesq’s displacement equation for homogeneous
elastic single layer;
3𝑝𝑎2
∆= 1/2
2𝐸 𝑎2 + 𝑧2
𝑝 = 𝑃/𝜋𝑎2
3𝑃
Therefor, ∆= /
2𝜋𝐸 𝑎2+𝑧2 1 2
1
3𝑃
𝑎2 + 𝑧2 2 =
2𝜋𝐸∆
2 2
3𝑃 2
𝑎 +𝑧 =
2𝜋𝐸∆

3𝑃 2
2
 Assuming that the pavement is incompressible, z becomes T, the
thickness of pavement,
3𝑃 2
𝑇= − 𝑎2
2∆𝜋𝐸𝑠
Here,
T = pavement thickness, cm
P = wheel load, kg
Es = modulus of elasticity of subgrade from triaxial test result. Kg/cm2
A = radius of contact area, cm
∆ = design deflection (0.25 cm)
In the analysis the pavement and the subgrade ae assumed to have the
same E-value.
• The Kansas state highway department of usa employs
this design equation along with empirical modification
for:
1. Traffic coefficient , X and
2. Saturation coefficient, Y.
• These coefficient are used as multiplying factors to the
total pavement thickness value which is thus
modified.

3𝑃𝑋𝑌 2 2 1 / 2
𝑇= − 𝑎
2∆𝜋𝐸𝑠
Traffic coefficient (X) ADT (number)
1/2 40-400
2/3 401-800
5/6 802-1200
1 1201-1800
7/6 1801-2700
8/6 2701-4000
9/6 4001-6000
10/6 6001-9000
11/6 9001-13500
12/6 13501-20000

Rainfall coefficient (Y) Average annual Rainfall, CM

0.5 38-50
0.6 51-64
0.7 65-76
0.8 77-90
0.9 91-100
1.0 101-127
• If pavement and subgrade are considered as a two layer
system, A Stiffness factor has to
be introduce to take into account the different values of
modulus of elasticity of the two layers.
• The pavement thickness is then modified using the stiffness
factor equal to (Es/Ep)1/3 where Es and Ep are values of
modulus of elasticity of the subgrade and pavement,
respectively.

1
3𝑃𝑋𝑌 2 2 1 /2 𝐸𝑠
𝑇= − 𝑎 { }3
2∆𝜋𝐸𝑠 𝐸𝑝
• The relation between pavement layers of thickness t1 and t2 of elastic modulus E1 and
E2 is given by :

𝑡1 𝐸2 1 /3
=
𝑡2 𝐸1
PROBLEM:-
Design the pavement section by triaxial test method using the following data:
Wheel load = 4100 kg
Radius of contact area = 15 cm
Traffic coefficient, X = 1.5
Rainfall coefficient Y = 0.9
Design deflection ∆ = 0.25 cm
E-value of subgrade soil Es = 100 kg/cm2
E-value of 7.5 cm thick bituminous concrete surface course = 1000kg/cm2
 Solution
3𝑃𝑋𝑌 2 𝐸𝑠 1/3
Tb = { − 𝑎2} ( )
2𝜋𝐸𝑠∆ 𝐸𝑏
3×4100×1.5×0.9 2 100 1/3= 104.64*0.63 = 65.9 cm
={ − 152}
2𝜋×100×0.25 400

Let 7.5 cm bituminous concrete surface with Ec = 1000 kg/cm2 b equivalent to the
thickness tb of base course. The equivalent replacement tb is obtained from relation:
𝑡𝑏 𝐸𝑐 1/3 𝑡𝑏 1000 1/3 1000 1/3
= ( ) i.e., = , tb = 7.5*( ) =10.2cm
𝑡𝑐 𝐸𝑏 7.5 400 400
Therefore the required base course thickness = 65.9-10.2=55.7 cm
The pavement section consists of 55.7 cm thick WBM base course and
7.5 cm thick bituminous concrete surface.
 4.McLeod Method
• Norman W. McLeod through Canadian Department of Transport conducted
extensive plate bearing tests on airfield and highway pavement and developed
a design method.
• The repetitive plate bearing test procedure was employed using various sizes
of plates.
• From the plate load test an empirical design equation was recommended:-
𝑃
T=K log10
𝑆
Here T = required thickness of gravel base, cm
P = gross wheel load, kg
S = total subgrade support, kg (for the same contact area, deflection and
number of repletion of load P), K = base course constant
Problem-
• Design a highway pavement for a wheel load of
4100kg with a tyre pressure of 5 kg/cm2. The plate
bearing test carried out on subgrade soil using 30 cm
diameter plate yielded a pressure of 2.5 kg/cm2 after
10 repetitions of load at 0.5 cm deflection.
 Solution-
𝑃 4100
• Radius of contact, a = = = 16.1 𝑐𝑚
𝑝𝜋 5𝜋
𝑃 2 2
• Perimeter over area ratio, = = = 0.124
𝐴 𝑎 16.1
• Using Graph, the ratio of unit subgrade support on 32.2 cm diameter
plate at 0.5 cm deflection is 0.95.
Therefore, unit support at 0.5 cm deflection = 0.95 x 2.5 =
2.44kg/cm2
Design subgrade support on 32.2 cm diameter plate,
32.22
𝑆 = 2.44𝜋 = 2100𝑘𝑔
4
• Base course constant for 32.2 cm diameter plate is
obtained from graph as 90.
• Granular pavement thickness,
𝑃 4100
𝑇 = 𝐾 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 90 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 = 26 𝑐𝑚
𝑆 21000

Provide 5 cm of bituminous surfacing out of this

thickness.
Effect of superior material on total thickness of flexible
pavement-
Stresses and strains in Three-layer Elastic
System
• A typical Three-layer showing the critical stresses and strain is given in
figure below-
• It may be seen from figure that layer-1 with elastic modulus E1 has a
thickness h1 and consist of dense graded stiff bituminous layer of
Bituminous Concrete Dene Bituminous Macadam DBM as surface and
binder courses.
• As these layer posses flexural strength , tensile stress and strain will
develop in this stiff layer.
• So it becomes necessary to determine the horizontal stress and strain
at the bottom of layer-1.
• The tensile strain in layer-1 is considered to be a critical factor in the
flexible pavement design.
• Therefore, by this concept, the first criterion to be fulfilled in flexible
pavement design is to limit the tensile stress and strain values within
permissible limit.
• Layer-2 with elastic modulus E2 has a thickness h2 and consist of
granular base course, such as Wet Mix Macadam WMM with hard
aggregate and granular subbase course/GSB layer.
• The value of E1 is higher than E2 or E1/E2 is greater than 1.0.
• The value of compressive stress and strain in this layer are lower than
the contact pressure due to the heavy wheel loads.
• Layer-3 consist of compacted soil subgrade with the lowest value of
elastic modulus E3=E3 and has an infinite depth. Thus E2/E3 is also
greater than 1.0.
• The values of compressive stress and strain on the top of the
subgrade or layer-3 is also considered to be another critical factor in
flexible pavement design.
• Higher values of compressive train on he subgrade will result in
permanent deformation along the wheel paths of heavy vehicle,
resulting in ‘rutting’ of the pavement.
Design Criteria-
• The number of repetition for causing specified rut depth or
the ‘rutting criterion’ is represented by the equation given
by-
1 4.5337 −8
𝑁𝑟 = 4.1656 ∗ 10
𝜖𝑧
Where,
Nf = CSA to produce rut depth of 20 mm
𝜖𝑧 = vertical strain on subgrade, micro strain
• The number of repetitions of standard axles or the CSA(
cumulative standard axles) causing fatigue failure or the
fatigue criterion is represented by the equation given by-
1 3.89 1 0.854 −4
𝑁𝑓 = 2.21 ∗ 10
𝜖𝑓 𝐸1
Where,
Nf = CSA to produce 20% of cracked area on the
bituminous surface
𝜖 f = tensile strain at the bottom of stiff bituminous
layer
E1 = elastic modulus of the first/bituminous layer
 3:- CBR METHOD
• The California Bearing Ratio devised by engineers of the
California Division of Highways in nine years period to
1938.
• Most universally accepted pavement design methods.
• A standard penetration-type load-deformation test is
carried out, and using the values obtained from the test
from an empirical design chart, the pavement thickness
are calculated.
• In this method, the CBR values are used to
determine the total thickness of the flexible
pavement and its various layers.
• Following are the graphs used in the design of the
pavement thickness.
 CALCULATIONS
1.MSA ( million standard axles)
365𝐴[ 1+𝑟 𝑛−1]
msa = x F x Df
𝑟
Where,
A = P[1+r](m+x)
P = number of heavy vehicles per day at least count
A = number of heavy vehicles per day for design(>3t)
r = annual rate of increase of heavy vehicles
m = number of years between the last count and the year of
completion of construction.
F = Vehicle damage factor
Df= Lane Distribution Factor
 𝑊1 4 𝑊2 4
∗𝑉1+ ∗𝑉2+⋯
𝑊𝑆 𝑊𝑆
F = Vehicle Damage Factor =
𝑉1+𝑉2+⋯
[FOURTH POWER FORMULA]

Df = 1(both direction) – single lane road

= 0.75(both direction) – two lane single carriageway roads
= 0.40 (both direction) - four lane single carriage way roads
= 0.75 (each direction) – dual two lane carriageway roads
= 0.60 (each direction) – dual three lane carriageway roads
= 0.45 (each direction) – dual four lane carriageway roads
 1
1.75 1 Where,
t =√P − 2 t = pavement thickness, cm
𝐶𝐵𝑅 𝑝𝞹
P = wheel load, kg
1 CBR = California bearing ratio,
1.75𝑃 𝐴 percent
t= [ − ]2 P = tyre pressure, kg/cm2
𝐶𝐵𝑅 𝞹
A = area of contact, cm2