Data and Data Collection

DATA
• Data
Plain facts collected, observed, or created, for purposes
of analysis to produce research results
• Information
When data are processed, organized, structured or
presented in a given context so as to make them useful
• Metadata
Structured data about data, of any sort in any media,
that imposes order on a disordered information
universe
 Data Types
• Primary
One which is collected afresh, for the first time

• Secondary
Data earlier collected by someone else and has
passed through statistical process
 Data Types
• Parametric
Numeric data that has direction
- Interval data
Data on a scale on which all points are equidistant from the ones next to them on a
scale of 1 through 10
- Ratio data
most absolute form of numeric data, can be divided and altered in different ways
to derive more meaning.
• Non-parametric
Data that does not have any direction and cannot be divided
- Ordinal
numeric data that indicates only the relative ranking of different items, without representing the
intensity of the mathematical value or the distance between the values
- Nominal
alphabetical or numeric data that is used for symbolic purposes and has no mathematical value
 Data types bu.edu (Boston university)

• Observational: data captured in real-time, usually irreplaceable.

e.g. sensor data, survey data
• Experimental: data from lab equipment, often reproducible, but can be
expensive.
e.g. gene sequences, chromatograms
• Simulation: data generated from test models where model and metadata
are more important than output data.
e.g. climate models, economic models.
• Derived or compiled: data is reproducible but expensive.
e.g. text and data mining, compiled database
• Reference or canonical: a (static or organic) conglomeration or collection
of smaller (peer-reviewed) datasets, most probably published and curated.
e.g. chemical structures, or spatial data portals
 Collection methods
• Observation
• Interview
• Questionnaire survey
• Reading
Selection
- nature, scope and object
- availability of funds
- time available
- precision required
 Observation
• Participant Observer:
- The researcher becomes a member (by concealing real identity as a
researcher) of the subjects of the study
- Researcher can directly experience the phenomenon.
- Deals with covert investigation for which information may be
sensitive and informants may feel uncomfortable to disclose
• Non - Participant Observer:
- The researcher watches the subjects with their knowledge of his/her
status as a researcher,
- Does not take any active part in the situation under study.
- Fact is that subjects being observed may lead people to behave
indifferently, thus invalidating the data obtained.
 Observation
• Structured
Definition of units to be observed, style of recording, standardised
conditions of observation, selection of pertinent data for observation
• Unstructured

• Controlled
Observation according to predefined plans
• Uncontrolled
Observation in natural setting
 Interview
• an interaction in which oral questions are posed by the
interviewer to elicit oral response from the interviewee

• Face to face / Telephone / Messenger / E-mail

• structured interview
Sets of questions are posed to each interviewee visited and the
responses are recorded on a standardized schedule
• unstructured interview
Interviewer freely modifies the sequence of questions, changes the
wording and sometimes explains them or adds to them during the
interaction
 Interview
• non-directive interview
Excessive freedom for the respondent to express his or her ideas
subjectively and spontaneously as she chooses or is able to
• focus interview
Focuses on the respondent’s subjective responses and experience
on the subject matter to elicit more information

Transcribing

• Research interviewing by Graham R Gibbs

 Questionnaire
Systematically prepared form or document with a
set of questions deliberately designed to elicit
responses from respondents
• Structured questionnaires
Closed form, In which some control or guidance is given for the
answer.
• Unstructured questionnaire
Open - ended or unrestricted type of questionnaire, calls for a
free response in the respondent's own words
 Reading
Studying public documents such as newspapers,
minutes of meetings and private documents such as
letters, biographies and diaries to enable the
researcher obtain the language and words of
informants
 Schedules
• Similar to Questionnaire
• Data filled in proforma by enumerators specially
appointed for the purpose
 Secondary data
• State/central government publications
• Publications of international bodies
• Technical / trade journals
• Books, magazines, newspapers
• Industry publications
• Research project reports
• Public record and statistics
• Historical documents
• Unpublished data

Reliability
Suitability
Adequacy
 Case study
• Qualitative analysis / complete observation and
intensive investigation of a unit (individual /
institution / situation) in depth rather than breadth
• Study of processes and their relationships
 Pilot / Pretest
Pilot study / experiment
A small scale preliminary study conducted in order
to evaluate feasibility, time, cost, adverse events,
and effect size (statistical variability) in an attempt
to predict an appropriate sample size and improve
upon the study design or to test the recording tool
prior to performance of a full-scale study
Mock-up
Prototype