KLOROPLAS

Eva Kristinawati Putri

Universitas Negeri Surabaya
Struktur Kloroplas
 Tujuan Perkuliahan:
• Mengidentifikasi bagian-bagian kloroplas
• Mengaitkan struktur dan fungsi bagian-bagian
kloroplas
• Menjelaskan sistem membran kloroplas
• Menjelaskan distribusi kompleks protein
fotosintetik dalam membran tilakoid
• Membandingkan struktur kloroplas dan
mitokondria
 Agenda Hari Ini:
Membaca bahan ajar (15 menit)

Mengerjakan LKM (20 menit)

Presentasi (40 menit)

Refleksi (5 menit)
A third internal membrane
system: the thylakoid membrane
Three internal compartments: the
inter-membrane space, stroma,
the thylakoid lumen
Ultrastructural Micrograph
of Chloroplast
• lens-shaped organelles
• with a diameter of ∼5 μm
• a width of ∼2.5μm
• The envelope membrane contain multi-subunit bridging
complexes that transport cytoplasmically synthesized
proteins into the chloroplasts
• the stroma include the enzymes involved in carbon
fixation, circular DNA anchored to the thylakoids,
ribosomes, starch granules and plastoglobuli
• The outer membrane contains porins -- permeable
• The inner membrane -- impermeable -- only via specific
membrane transporters
the inner membrane restricts the passage of molecules
between the cytosol and stroma  given the role in the
chemiosmotic generation of ATP

• The stroma contains the chloroplast genetic system and a

variety of photosynthetic metabolic enzymes

• The thylakoid membrane contains chloroplast electron

transport system -- pump protons from the stroma to the
thyakoid lumen -- electrochemical gradient that drives
ATP synthesis ~ inner membrane of mitochondria
In terms of its generation of metabolic energy, the thylakoid
membrane of chloroplasts is thus equivalent to the inner
membrane of mitochondria  the location of electron transport
& the chemiosmotic generation of ATP
• Staked thylakoid membranes differ from non-stacked
• Staked grana thylakoid (GT): appressed membranes
correspond to the grana structures
• Unstacked stroma thylakoid (ST): in direct contact with
the stroma
• Mature chloroplasts: 40-60 grana stacks with
• diameters of 0.3 to 0.6 μm
• The number of thylakoids per stack in mature thylakoids
varies from <10 in high light chloroplasts to as many as
100 thylakoids in the extreme shade plant Alocasia
macrorhiza
• The stacked thylakoid regions: 50-60% of the membrane
surface area in plants grown under high light, and for
about 70% in those grown under low light conditions
 The helical fretwork model

• the individual grana is interconnected by stroma

thylakoids, which intersect the grana membranes and
form right-handed helices around the stacks
• At each intersection, a narrow, neck-like membrane
region connects the grana and stroma membrane
domains.
 The folded-membrane model

• The thylakoid network is constructed by folding of a

single continuous membrane
• The grana are formed by stacking of repeat units
consisting of three layers generated by duplicate
invaginations of the stroma lamellae
 Shimoni et al. (2005)
• Grana are formed by
bifurcations of the stroma
lamellar sheets (black arrow),
which run roughly
perpendicular to the long axis
of the granum cylinders
• Neighboring layers in the grana
are also connected to each
other through bridges located
near the bifurcation points at
the rim of the grana (white
arrow).
• GRANA: cylindrical stacks, comprised of
multiple, tightly appressed layers

• STROMA LAMELLAE: unstacked membrane

regions that interconnect the grana,
• Scanning electron microscope image of de-
enveloped Arabidopsis chloroplasts
• Each large sphere is a single de-enveloped
chloroplast, and the disks seen on the surface
correspond to the grana membranes
• PS I & PS II: emitting electrons upon the absorbance of
light energy
• Cyt f/b6: mediates the transport of electrons between
the two PSs and further contributes to the formation of a
proton-motive force (pmf)
• ATP synthetase: converts the pmf into ready-to-use ATP
molecules
 Thylakoid membrane bilayer
with embedded protein complexes
 DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF THYLAKOID
MEMBRANE ORGANIZATION
• Effects of Salt on Thylakoid Structure
a loss of the stacked membrane regions and a complete
intermixing of all intramembrane protein complexes  a
reversal reaction by the formation of new grana stacks
and resegregation of the intermixing
• Phosphorylation-Dependent Changes in Thylakoid
Structure
excitation energy distribution between PSII and PSI is
brought about by the reversible lateral migration of a
population of mobile light harvesting antennae
 Chloroplast & other Plastids
• Chloroplasts
• Chromoplasts Develop from proplastids,
an undifferentiated
• Leucoplasts organelles present in the
• Amyloplasts rapidly dividing cells of plant
roots and shoots
• Elaioplasts
 Development of
chloroplasts in the
photosynthetic cells of
leavescontrolled both
by environmental signals
and by intrinsic
programs of cell
differentiation

Etioplasts: an
intermediate stage of
arrested chloroplasts
development

Note: The thylakoid membrane is formed by vesicles budding from the inner
membrane of the plastid envelope
Chloroplast has its own genome. Does they need
proteins encoded by nuclear genomes?
• Chloroplast genomes are larger, more complex, and
encode more of their own proteins than those of
mitochondria  ± 120 genes and 30 photosynthetic
proteins
• However, about 90% of chloroplast proteins are still
encoded by nuclear genes
• Protein import and sorting into chloroplast?
 Protein import
into the stroma
• Transit peptide: N-
terminal sequences
• The steps resembles
mitochondrial protein
import, unless:
1. direct protein across
two membranes of
the chloroplast
2. Transit peptides are
not positively
charged
3. Translocation doesn’t
require an electric
potential across the
membrane
 Protein import
into thylakoid lumen
• They are first imported
into stroma
• A second hydrophobic
signal sequence
exposed following
cleavage of the transit
peptide  directs
protein translocation
across the thylakoid
membrane  removed
by a second proteolytic
cleavage within the
lumen
DIFFERENCES
CHLOROPLAST & MITOCHONDRION

- THE END -
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK990
5/
Another function of mitochondria?
• Mitochondrial membranes contain numerous transport
systems for the import of metabolites and high energy
intermediates, export of ATP which is utilized in the cytosol,
and inorganic phosphate, which is returned to the matrix via a
phosphate-proton symport that is driven by the chemiosmotic
gradient. Thus some of the gradient energy is always used for
purposes other than synthesis of ATP.
• Mitochondria are exceedingly important as storage tanks for
calcium ions. Calcium ion concentration is an important
second messenger in cells. It must be precisely controlled in
various intracellular compartments, or cellular function is
compromised. Indeed, calcium itself is a mediator of many
toxins. Mitochondria may act as 'sinks' to buffer the effects of
calcium overload.
• Cardiac mitochondria are complex highly
organized cellular organelles, which play
central roles not only in energy homeostasis
but also in various biosynthetic, signaling, and
cell death pathways
 ANOTHER FUNCTION OF CHLOROPLAST

• Most importantly, chloroplasts are responsible for the

photosynthetic conversion of CO2 to carbohydrates. In
addition, chloroplasts synthesize amino acids, fatty acids, and
the lipid components of their own membranes. The reduction
of nitrite (NO2-) to ammonia (NH3), an essential step in the
incorporation of nitrogen into organic compounds, also occurs
in chloroplasts. Moreover, chloroplasts are only one of several
types of related organelles (plastids) that play a variety of
roles in plant cells.
• Obvious structural and naming differences that you should be able to figure out from the diagram above.
• Mitochondria are involved in cellular respiration whereas chloroplasts are involved in photosynthesis. Thus, the overall
chemical reactions for the processes occurring in them are different and reversed.
• - Respiration: C6H12O6+6O2 ---> 6CO2+6H2O+ATP
• - Photosynthesis: 6CO2+6H2O --->C6H12O6+6O2
• Mitochondria are found in all animal and plant cells. Chloroplasts, however, are found in only specific types of plant cells,
such as the palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll cells of leaves. These cells are the ones involved in carrying out
photosynthesis. Other types of plant cells, such as root cells do not contain chloroplasts.
• Chloroplasts contain pigments such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids. Mitochondria do not contain any such
pigments.
• The ATP synthase in mitochondria and chloroplast are orientated differently. ATP synthase in mitochondria points into the
matrix, with protons flowing from the intermembrane space to the matrix. In chloroplasts however, ATP synthase points
towards the stroma, and protons flow from the thylakoid space into the stroma.
• The types of electron acceptors present in mitochondria and chloroplast vary. While mitochondria contain NAD and FAD,
chloroplasts contain NADP.
• The sources of energy used to synthesize ATP in mitochondria and chloroplasts are different. In mitochondria, this energy
comes from the oxidation of glucose, and is hence termed oxidative phosphorylation. In chloroplast, this energy comes from
light, so it is called photophosphorylation.
• Mitochondria function under both light and dark conditions. Chloroplasts, on the other hand, do need light to function.
• Electron transport chains: The final electron acceptor in mitochondria is oxygen, whereas the final electron acceptor in
chloroplasts is NADP.
• In mitochondria, the root source of electrons is generally glucose (it could be other substrates depending on what was
utilized). In chloroplasts, however, the root source of electrons is the photolysis of water occurring at photosystem II. Water
(H2O) is broken down to release 2 protons, 2 electrons and a molecule of oxygen.
• Mitochondria give out carbon dioxide from the decarboxylation (removal of carbon)reactions that occur during the link
reaction and Krebs cycle but chloroplasts give out oxygen due to photolysis as explained above.