Understanding Homeostasis, the

Equilibrium of Bodily Functions,

That Chronic Stress Disrupts Badly
Satish Kalra
 Homeostasis
• Optimal functioning of body physiology
depends on variables like body temperature,
fluid balance, pH of extracellular fluid,
concentrations
of sodium, potassium and calcium ions, and
blood sugar level.
• Each of these variables is controlled by
regulators.
• Homeostasis is the balance of bodily
functions.
 Hormones play important role in
Homeostasis
• Endocrine System: It is a group of glands that sustains
response of autonomic nervous system through
hormones.
• Feed back loop: Hormones are maintained within in a
stable range all the times. Feedback loop is the
mechanism that controls hormone production.
– Negative response: When there is decrease in the level of
a hormone, the releasing gland is stimulated to release
more hormone.
– Positive response: When there is increase in the level of a
hormone, the releasing gland is instructed to reduce the
release of the hormone.
 Four levels of hierarchical control of
hormones
• Hypothalamus: This part of the brain produces
neurohormones in response to stimuli
• Pituitary Gland: On instructions from
neurohormones, pituitary sends hormones to
target endocrine glands
• Target Endocrine Glands: Target endocrine glands
release the designated hormones. They also
provide feedback to hypothalamus and pituitary
to act according to new situation.
• Target Organs and Tissues
 Endocrine system secrete three
classes of Hormones
• Hormones that maintain internal metabolic
balance and regulate physiology
• Sex hormones that control reproductive
functions and sexual appearance and identity
• Stress hormones that are secreted in times of
stress
 Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis - Neuroendocrine control

Gland Hormone(s) produced Function

Pituitary gland Growth stimulating Growth
A protrusion off the hormone
bottom of
the hypothalamus Adrenocorticotropin Regulates adrenal
Size of pea – weight 0.5. Thyroid stimulating Regulates thyroid gland
Produces large no of hormone (TSH)
hormones, all under
control of hypothalamus Luteinizing hormone Reproductive systems
Mediates stress
Follicle stimulating
response via hormone
hypothalamic-pituitary-
adrenal axis
 Endocrine system

Gland Hormone(s) produced Function

Pineal gland Melatonin Sleep Pattern
Thyroid Thyroxin Metabolism
Parathyroid gland Parathyroid hormone Bone and calcium
metabolism
Thymus Thymosin Disease fighting T cells

Adrenal gland Corticosteroids Salt balance and blood

volume
Metabolism
Adrenalin Stress/ Flight or fight
response
Pancreas Insulin Sugar control

Ovary/ Testes Sex hormones Sex related

Some Examples of Homeostasis
 Thermoregulation
• Core temperature is regulated and stabilized by the hypothalamus.
• When core temperature deviates from the set point, endocrine
production initiates control mechanisms so that the temperature
reaches toward the set point.
• When body temperature goes up in hot weather, mechanisms for
heat loss become operative
– Secretion of sweat brings about heat loss via evaporative cooling
– Increase of blood flow to the skin brings about heat loss by convection
and conduction
• When body temperature goes down in cold weather, mechanisms
for heat conservation become operative
– Decrease in sweat production
– Decrease in blood flow to skin prevent heat loss to the surroundings
– Muscles receive messages from the thermoregulatory center to cause
shivering to produce heat
 Blood gases
• Changes in the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide and plasma pH are
sent to the respiratory center in the brain.
• Change in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is detected as
altered pH in the cerebrospinal fluid.
• Information is sent to the respiratory center which activates the
effector organs – the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration.
• An increased level of carbon dioxide in the blood, or a decreased
level of oxygen result in deeper breathing and increased respiratory
rate to bring the blood gases back to equilibrium.
• At altitudes above 2500 m, the monitoring of the partial pressure of
oxygen takes priority, and hyperventilation keeps the oxygen level
constant.
 Arterial blood pressure
• High bleed pressure is detected when the walls of the arteries stretch due
to an increase in blood volume.
– Reduction in blood volume: Heart muscle cells secrete the hormone that acts
on the kidneys to inhibit the secretion of hormones causing the release of
sodium, and with that water into the urine; blood volume gets reduced as a
result.
– Dilation of arterioles: Information is conveyed to the brain and instructions
are passed on to ANS. Arterioles are stimulated to dilate making it easier for
blood to leave the arteries and bring the blood pressure down.
– Slowing of heart beat: Heart is stimulated via parasympathetic nerves to beat
more slowly, ensuring that the inflow of blood into the arteries is reduced.
• Low pressure in the arteries causes the opposite reflex of constriction of
the arterioles, and a speeding up of the heart rate.
• In cased of very rapid and excessive drop in pressure, the sympathetic
system is stimulated to secrete adrenaline into the blood. This hormone
enhances the tachycardia and causes severe vasoconstriction of the
arterioles to all except vital organs like heart, lungs and brain.
 Calcium
• The sensor situated in the parathyroid glands sense the Ca2+ level.
• In case of fall in plasma Ca2+ level
• The parathyroid cells secrete parathyroid hormone
• Parathyroid hormone causes bone resorption to release calcium into the plasma.
• It also cause the excretion of phosphate ions via the urine; since phosphates
combine with calcium ions to form insoluble salts, a decrease in the level of
phosphates in the blood releases free calcium ions into the plasma ionized calcium
pool.
• It also stimulates the manufacture and release of calcitriol hormone by the
kidneys; this hormone acts on the upper small intestine, increasing their capacity
to absorb calcium from the gut contents.
• In case of increase in Ca2+ level , thyroid gland releases calcitonin into the blood.
• I acts primarily on bone, causing the rapid removal of calcium from the blood and
depositing it, in insoluble form, in the bones.
• The skeleton acts as an extremely large calcium store (about 1 kg) compared with
the plasma calcium store (about 180 mg).
 Blood glucose
• The primary sensors for regulation of blood sugar level are in pancreas.
• Rise in blood sugar level
– Insulin secretion is increased and glucagon secretion inhibited. This
combination of high blood insulin levels and low glucagon levels act fat
cells and muscle cells.
– The liver stops producing glucose and instead starts converting it
to glycogen and triglycerides. While the glycogen is stored in the liver, the
triglycerides are secreted into the blood as very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)
particles to be taken up by adipose tissue for storage as fats.
– Muscle cells stores glucose as muscle glycogen.
• Fall in blood glucose
– Insulin secretion is stopped, and glucagon secretion increased.
– The liver starts manufacturing glucose from glycogen. The glucose so
produced is discharged into the blood correcting the detected hypoglycemia.
• The glycogen stored in muscles however, remains in the muscles, and is
only broken down, during exercise to glucose.
Homeostasis is threatened by
stressors
Physiology of
Stress
Hypothalamic hormone
stimulates pituitary gland to
secrete ACTH.
ACTH stimulates the adrenal
to produce glucocorticoids.
glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoid stimulates
several processes that
collectively serve to increase
and maintain normal
concentrations of glucose in
blood.
Adrenaline increases blood
flow to muscles, output of the
heart, pupil dilation,
and blood sugar.