Environment The surroundings, conditions or

influences that affect the human life or other organisms

Environmental Chemistry is a multi
disciplinary science involving chemistry, physics, life
science, agriculture, medical science, public health,
sanitary engineering etc. It is the science of chemical
phenomena in the environment. In broader sense it is
the study of the sources, reactions, transport, effect and
fate of chemical species in the air, water and soil and the
effect of human activity upon these.

Components of Environment

Biotic Abiotic
Segments of environment:
1) Atmosphere: Protective blanket of gases
surrounding the earth
2) Hydrosphere: All types of water resources
3) Lithosphere: Outer membrane of the soild earth
constituting the earth’s crust.
4) Biosphere: portion of the earth which deals with the
living organisms and their interactions with the
environment
Ecosystem: Smaller unit of biosphere. An ecosystem
consists of plants, animals, and microorganisms which
live in definite zone along with physical factors such as
soil, water and air.
• The biosphere is Earth’s zone of air, soil, and
water that is capable of supporting life. It is a
zone which is reaching about 10 km into the
atmosphere and down to the deepest ocean
floor.
• Processes in the biosphere include life and
death, evolution and extinction.
• Within the biosphere the basic unit of analysis
or study is the ecosystem. Thus, the biosphere
is the global sum of all ecosystems.
Pollutant: any substance present in nature, in greater
than natural abundance due to human which ultimately
has a detrimental effect on the environment and on
human. e.g. lead, murcury
Contaminant: a material which does not occur in nature,
but is introduced by human activity into the environment
affecting its composition. A contaminant is a pollutant
when it exerts a detrimental effect. e.g. Cl2 gas. This
gas does not occur in the atmosphere. So it is a
contaminant but because of its dangerous effect it is a
pollutant. contamination refers simply to the presence of
a substance where it should not be. This means that all
pollutants are contaminants, but not all contaminants
Carbon Monoxide (CO) which is released to the atmosphere through the
combustion of fuel in engines and vehicles has many adverse effects, health
effects. It reduces oxygen delivery to the body’s organs and tissues, and at
extremely high levels, it can lead to death. Some other common air pollutants
include Nitrogen Dioxide, Lead, Sulfur Dioxide, particulate matter, etc. The
severity of a pollutant can be measured by its chemical nature, the
Significance of a part per million

Unit Measurement Ratio

1 mg/kg 1 P. P. M 1/1,000,000

1 μg/kg 1 P. P. B 1/1,000,000,000

1 ng/kg P. P. T 1/1,000,000,000
,000
 Air pollution
Air is never found clean in nature due to natural and
man made pollution.
Continuously released
into atmosphere
Through natural
Gases: CO2, SO2, H2S activities

Volcanic activity  Vegetation decay  Forest fires

Tiny particlesof solid and liquid:

 Winds  Volcanic explosions

Natural pollutant
Chemical and biological processes:
 Gas  Mists  Particulate aerosol

Man made
Air pollutents are present in the atmosphere in
concentration that disturb the dynamic equilibrium in the
atmosphere and thereby affect man and his environment
Primary pollutant: CO, NOx, SOX, hydrocarbon,
particulate matter
Secondary Pollutant: O3 is a secondary pollutant, i.e. it is
not actually emitted but rather is formed by reactions
that take place in the atmosphere. Volatile organic
compound are inputs to the photochemical reactions that
produce ozone, so they are used as indicators of the
potential for ozone formation.
CO
Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas found in the urban
atmosphere.
No other gaseous air pollutants with such a toxic
potential exist at such high concentration in urban
environment.
Source:
A) Natural processes: i) volcanic action, ii) natural gas
emission, iii) electrical discharge during storm
B) Human activities-----Significant contribution
i) Transportaion -64%(motor vehicles 59.2%, air craft
2.4%
oncentrationSymptoms35 ppm (0.0035%)Headache
and dizziness within six to eight hours of constant
exposure100 ppm (0.01%)Slight headache in two to
three hours200 ppm (0.02%)Slight headache within
two to three hours; loss of judgment400 ppm
(0.04%)Frontal headache within one to two hours800
ppm (0.08%)Dizziness, nausea, and convulsions
within 45 min; insensible within 2 hours1,600 ppm
(0.16%)Headache, tachycardia, dizziness, and nausea
within 20 min; death in less than 2 hours3,200 ppm
(0.32%)Headache, dizziness and nausea in five to ten
minutes. Death within 30 minutes.6,400 ppm
(0.64%)Headache and dizziness in one to two
minutes. Convulsions, respiratory arrest, and death in
less than 20 minutes.12,800 ppm
(1.28%)Unconsciousness after 2–3 breaths. Death in
less than three minutes.
ii) Miscellaneous-16.9% (forest fire 7.2%, agricultural
burning 8.3%)
iii) Industrial processes-9.6% (iron and steel industries
and petroleum and paper industries
Formation:
1) Incomplete combustion of fuel or carbon containing
compound
2C+O2 2CO
2CO + O2 2CO2
2) Reaction between CO2 and carbon containing
materials at elevated temp. in industrial processes.
e.g. in blast furnaces
CO2+C 2CO
3) Dissociation of CO2 at high temp.
CO2 CO+O
Human exposure:
a) Surrounding ambient environment, accidental
intoxication, environmental problems in the house
b) Occupational exposure
c) Cigarette smoking
Physiological effects
1) Haemoglobin picks up O2 in the lungs forming a
complex called oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2)
Hb+O2 HbO2
2) Once it reaches the body tissues, HbO2 releases the
O2
3) CO is toxic because it interferes with normal O2
transport by the blood. Toxic action involves the
Formation of carboxyhaemoglobin
4) The chemical affinity of CO for Hb is more than 200
times greater than that of O2. Furthermore, in the
presence of CO, HbO2 readily releases its O2 to
absorb CO.
HbO2 +CO HbCO +O2
Since the binding sites of each of the polypeptide
chains on the haemoglobin molecule cannot be
occupied by the O2 and CO at the same time, it is
apparent that CO can tie up a substantial quantity of Hb.
So Hb will not be able to transport O2 to the tissue
Severely impairing body function Heart and CNS
HbCO (20%) Mild headache
HbCO (40%) Mental confusion
HbCO (60%) Convulsion
HbCO (70%) Death
Fetal death Maternal CO poisoning
Control of CO pollution:
Transportation source responsible 74%
So control of CO pollution are mainly to control
automobile
Effects of continuous exposures to various levels of CO

CO Level % conversion of Effects on human

PPM O2Hb to COHb

10 2 Impairment of judgement
and visual perception

100 15 Headache, dizziness

250 32 Loss of conciousness

750 60 Death after several hours

1000 66 Rapid death

 Sulfur Oxides(SOx)

SO2 SO3
Source: A) Natural processes: e.g. volcanoes(67%)
B) Man made 33%
i) Fuel combustion (Coal) 74% Coal-fired
ii) Industries 22% power station

iii) Transportation 2%
Formation: S+O2 SO2
2SO2+O2 2SO3
Under normal humid conditions of the atmosphere, SO3
invariably reacts with water vapour to form droplets of
H2SO4.
 SO3+H2O H2SO4
The most important s-containing compound in coal is
iron disulfide or pyrite(FeS2) when heated at high temp.,
pyrite is oxidized through the reactions as follows:
FeS2(pyrite)+3O2 FeSO4 +SO2
4FeS2+11O2 Fe2O3+8SO2
In the smelting process, sulfide ores of Cu, Pb, and Zn
are oxidized (roasted) forming metallic oxides. e.g. ZnS
is converted to Zno, releasing SO2.
2ZnS+3O2 2ZnO+2SO2
SO2 poisoning:
1) SO4 aerosols in urban air are generally smaller than
2 μ so they easily penetrate the innermost passages of
the lungs of human and cause severe respiratory
troubles particularly among older people.
2) SO2 (0.25 to 0.5 ppm in environment) causes hazards
to health by irritating respiratory passage and by
agravating such condition as asthma and bronchitis.
3) A moderate increase in SO2 content(0.15 ppm) in
environment causes major respiratory problem but not
rapidly died.
4) It reacts with cellular constituents
5) H2SO4 lowers the pH and impairs the enzymatic
action and destroys various functional molecules.
6 Leads to bronchial spasm, breathlessness, impaired
pulmonary function and increased susceptibility to
 Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitrous oxide(N2O)
Nitric oxide(NO) Major
Nitrogen dioxide(NO2) pollutant
Nitrogen trioxide(N2O3)
Nitrogen tetraoxide(N2O4)
Nitrogen pentaoxide(N2O5)
NO Colorless; NO2 reddish brown color
and pungent suffocating odour
Formation: N2+O2 2NO(high temp. combustion
process)
2NO+O2 2NO2
Source: A) Natural bacterial action 5x108
tonnes NOx (NO)
B) Man Made 5x107 tones (may vary in urban or
rural areas)
Thus in USA and Canada the concentration of NO and
NO2 are 2PPB and 4 PPB(from natural source) but the
same in urban atmospheres may reach 500 PPB(0.5
PPM).
Main man made source combustion of oil/oily
natural gas/gasoline)
Harmfull effects of NOx: almost all NOx emissions are in
the form of NO, which has no known adverse health
effects at concentration found in the atmosphere.
However, NO can oxidize to NO2 which in turn may react
with hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight to form
photochemical smog. That is injurious.
sunlight
1) NO NO2+hydrocarbon Photochemical
smog
2) NO2+OH• HNO3 acid rain
Photochemical smog is a unique type of air
Pollution which is caused by reactions between sunlight
and pollutants like hydrocarbons and nitrogen dioxide.
Although photochemical smog is often invisible, it can be
extremely harmful, leading to irritations of the respiratory
tract and eyes. In regions of the world with high
concentrations of photochemical smog, elevated rates of
Death and respiratory illnesses have been observed.
NO NO2 O3
N2+O2 2NO
NO2+hʋ NO+O
O+O2+M O3+M O2
O3+NO NO2+O2
Sun

Emissions NO NO2 Atomic O3

Oxygen

N2-Photolytic cycle
 O3
RCH2 • O2 RCH2O2 • NO RCH2O • +NO2
Hydroperoxyl O2
radical

NO2 +HO • HO2 •

NO +RCHO
• In summary, this is what happens in
photochemical smog formation
• 1) Nitrogen oxides generate oxygen atoms
• 2) Oxygen atoms form hydroxyl radicals
• 3) Hydroxyl radicals generate hydrocarbon
radicals
• 4) Hydrocarbon radicals form hydrocarbon
peroxides
• 5) Hydrocarbon peroxides form aldehydes
• 6) Aldehydes form aldehyde peroxides
• 7) Aldehyde peroxides form peroxyacylnitrates
•
• http://schoolworkhelper.net/wp-
content/uploads/2011/06/Photochemical-
Smog-3.jpg
• Smog itself is simply airborne pollution which
may obscure vision and cause various health
conditions. It is caused by small particles of
material which become concentrated in the
air for a variety of reasons. Commonly, smog
is caused by an inversion, in which cool air
presses down on a column of warm air,
forcing the air to remain stationary.
Inversions are notorious in Southern
California, where smog can sometimes get
Biochemical effects of Ozone and PAN
1) Cause irritation of the eyes and respiratory tracts of
human beings
2) 50 ppm of O3 for several hours will lead to mortality
due to pulmonary edema
3) Low levels of O3 may cause damage to lung
capillaries
4) Sulphur-containing amino acid, cysteine is strongly
attacked by PAN.
5) Isocitric dehydrogenase, malic dehydrogenase,
glucose-6-PO4 dehydrogenase will be deactivated.
 Green House Effect/ Atmospheric Effect/Global
Warming/CO2 Problem
The term GHE was first introduced by J. Fourier in 1827.
Human activities are changing the composition as well
as behavior of the atmosphere at an unprecedented
rate. The pollutants from a wide range of human
activities are increasing the global atmospheric
concentration of certain heat trapping gases, which act
like a blanket, trapping heat close to the surface that
would otherwise escape though the atmosphere to the
outer space. This process is known as GHE, because
it reminds some observers of the heat trapping effect
of the glass walls in a green house. So green house
allows the short wave length incoming solar radiation
to come in but does not allow the long wave outgoing
“Earths atmosphere” Green house
“CO2” Glass window
So green house effect can be defined as “the
progressive warming up of the earth’s surface due to
blanketing effect of man made CO2 in the
atmosphere”.
Or “Green house effect is the phenomena due to which
the earth retains heat.”
By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse
effect on Earth the four major gases are:[
• water vapor, 36–70%
• carbon dioxide, 9–26%
• methane, 4–9%
• ozone, 3–7%
• The GREENHOUSE GASES are very important and are
mainly:
• water vapour
occurs naturally in the atmosphere.
• carbon dioxide
produced naturally when people and animals breathe. Plants
and trees absorb carbon dioxide to live. Volcanoes also
produce this gas. Carbon dioxide is not the same as carbon
monoxide
• methane
comes from cattle as they digest their food. The gas also
comes from fields where rice is grown in paddy fields.
• nitrous oxide
when plants die and rot, nitrous oxide is produced.
• ozone
occurs naturally in the atmosphere.
All the solar energy have W.L. less than 4 μm, while the
outgoing energy radiated by the earth has essentially
all of its energy in WL greater than 4 μm. So solar
energy is short W.L. radiation while energy radiated
from the earth’s surface is long W.L. or thermal
radiation. Essentially all of the incoming solar radiation
with W.L. less than 3.0 μm(UV) is absorbed by the O2
and O3. This absorption of UV occurs in stratosphere,
shielding the earth’s surface from harmful uv radiation.
Most of the long W.L. energy radiated by the earth is
affected by a combination of radiatively active gases
Water vapour, CO2, nitrous oxide(N2O) and
methane. Radiatively active gases that absorb WL
longer than 4 μm are called green house gases.
These gases trap most of the outgoing thermal
This absorption heats the atmosphere, which in turn
radiates energy back to the earth as well as out to
space. These green house gases act like a thermal
blanket around the globe, raising the earth’s surface
temperature beyond the effective temperature, i.e. -
18oC. The net result is that the earth’s surface gets
heated up by a phenomena called “green house
effect”. If the earth did not already have a green house
effect, its temp. would be 255 K/-18oC/0oF. In fact one
way to quantify the magnitude of the green house
effect is to compare the effective temp, Te, with the
actual surface temp, TS.
GHE (o C) = Ts-Te = 15-(-18)= 33 o C
TS = 288 K ; Te = 255 K
GHE add 33 o C of warming to the surface of the earth.
Major sources of green house gases:
• Industrial as well as agricultural operations
emit waste gases into the atmosphere.
burning of fossil fuel emit CO2
growing paddy or live stock release CH4
use of aerosol in refrigerator and air conditioning
release CFC
Major Green house gases and their characteristics
Gas Relative green house Current green house Principle sources of
efficiency(CO2=1) contribution (%) gas
CO2 1 57 Fossil fuel, deforestation

CFCs 15000 25 Foam , aerosols,

refrigerants
CH4 25 12 Wetland , rice, live stock,
fossil fuel
N2O 230 6 Fuel, fertilizer,
Green House effects:
A. Global Warming: net result of global warming
i) Polar ice caps will melt as the mean temp. rises. This
would cause the sea level to rise all over the world
and lowland areas in all continents would be subject
to increased flooding.
ii) If the production of green house gases is continued,
low land countries will go under water within 100
years.
iii) There will be greater evaporation of water at the
higher temp. ing the quantity of water
vapour in the atmosphere. So the green house effect
might be further enhanced. This might the
precipitation of snow at the poles, thereby ing the
polar ice caps again.
iv) Climate changes obvoiusly have important
implications for agriculture. Some areas of the world
may become better suited to agriculture, while others
will be adversely affected.
B. Extreme weather condition
• Extreme cold
• Extreme hot
• Not proper season in proper time
 Impacts
1)Agr.iculture
Use of
Population 2) Sea
fossil fuel
3) Ecosystem
Distribution
to oceans,
Economic Deforestation Climate
atmospher
growth change
e

Other green
Technology house gases

Prevention Policcy Adaptation

strategies
 Acid Rain:
Deposition of dilute solutions of acids(mainly H2SO4 and
HNO3) with rainfall on the earth.
pH of clean rain water 5.6
pH of acid rain water 4.5 or lower
Formation of acid rain:
● Large number of industries
●Burning of fossil fuel
NO+ O3 NO2+O2 SO2+1/2O2+H2O H2SO4
NO2+O2 NO3+O2
NO2+NO3 N2O5
N2O5+H2O HNO3
Effects of acid rain:
1) Causes damage to buildings and sculptural materials
of marble, limestone, slate etc. as the carbonates in
these materials are replaced by sulfates so these
materials become weakened as soluble sulfates are
formed.
CaCO3 +H2SO4 CaSO4 +CO2+H2O
Limestone Gypsum

CaSO4 water soluble easily washes away

leaving a pitted, eroded surface.
2) Damage of leaves and trees by inhibiting
photosynthesis.
3) Causes skin irritation
4) Increases solubility of Al, Fe, Mg salts in soil. High
Concentration toxic decreases soil fertility.
5) When acid rain comes to ground water, pH is
lowered. CO2 conc. of H2O increases aquatic
death by inhibiting enzymatic action.
6) Acidification of drinking water may exceed public
health limits injurious effects.
Control of acid rain:
To control the emissions of the oxides of sulphur and
nitrogen from industries and power plants by using
proper control equipments and stingent legislations.
Periodic application of lime to neutralize acidity is a
solution but is expensive and cannot be applied on a
large scale.
 Heavy Metal Toxicity
Metals in environment:
1) Mining 2) soil erosion 3) Pest 4)Disease control
agents applied to plants
Heavy metals are toxic
1) Soluble in water and so can be readily absorbed into
plant or animal tissue.
2) Tend to bind to biomolecules such as protein and
nucleic acid, impairing their functions.
Pb. Cd, Hg, Ni, As

Most toxic
Lead
•Air • surface water • Soil • Rocks
Glass paints, pipes, building materials, weapons, money
High ductility, higher stability, resist cracking and
peeling, retain color well.
Lead toxicity:
Adult absorb 10% of ingested Pb
Children Absorb 50% of ingested Pb
Half life: Blood 25 days
Tissue 40 days
Bone 25 years
1) Systemic poisons
2) Inhibits hematopoiesis as it inhibits heme synthesis.
So can cause anaemia
3) Affect kidney by inducing renal tubular dysfunction.
4) Effect on GIT: Nausea, anorexia, abdominal cramps,
constipation.
5) Lung damage, difficulty in breathing, asthma,
bronchitis and pneumonia
6) lead acetate and lead phosphate are designated as
reasonably anticipated to be human carcinogen.
Pb poisoning is the most common and serious
environmental disease affecting young children.
Children are much more vulnerable to Pb exposure
than adults because of their more rapid growth rate
and metabolism. Pb absorption from GIT in children is
higher than adults (25% vs 8%).
7) On CNS: damage to brain resulting retardation and
behavioral change
Biochemical Effect:
1) Interfere with heme hematological damage
Succinyl COA + Glycine
ALA synthetase Pb

δ- Amino-Levulinic Acid
ALA-Dehydratase Pb
Porphobilinogen(PBG)
Uroporphyrinogen I Uroporphyrinogen III
Coproporphyrinogen III
Protoporphyrin IX
Ferrochelatase Fe+2
Pb
2) Enzyme Inactivation:
2RSH +Pb+2 R-S-Pb-S-R +2H+
3) Adverse effect on N.A. Decrease or
increase protein synthesis
Lewisite and antiLewisite:
An Arsenic containing poison gas called lewisite was
used in World War I. British scientists developed a
compound to counteract Lewisite led to an
understanding of how As acts as a poison and
subsequently to the development of an antidote. After
recognizing that Lewisite poisoned people because of
the reaction between Arsenic and the protein-SH
group, the scientists seek out to find a suitable comp.
that contained a highly reactive –SH group that could
compete with the protein –SH group for As, thus
rendering the poison ineffective. As a result BAL (British-
Anti-Lewisite) was developed. BAL is a chelating
agent and as such can react with some metal ion and
Arsenic.
CH2-OH CH2-OH

CH-SH
+ M+2 + 2H+
CH-S
M
CH2-SH
CH2-S

BAL
Chelated metal ion
• DIMERCAPROL is an anti-gas warfare agent that is effective
against Lewisite (dichloro(2-chlorovinyl)arsine) and formerly
known as British Anti-Lewisite or BAL. It acts as a chelating
agent and is used in the treatment of arsenic, gold, and other
heavy metal poisoning.
• Dimercaprol is a traditional chelating agent developed by British
biochemists at Oxford University during World War II. It was
developed as an experimental antidote against the arsenic-
based poison gas Lewisite. It has been used clinically since
1949 in arsenic, cadmium and mercury poisoning. In addition, it
has in the past been used for the treatment of Wilson's disease,
a genetic disorder in which the body tends to retain copper.
Dimercaprol is a potentially toxic drug, and its use may be
accompanied by multiple side effects.
Antidotes: lead poisoning can be cured by treatment with
chelating agents which strongly bind Pb+2. So Pb+2
displaces Ca+2 from Ca+2-Chelate and the resulting
pb+2-chelate is rapidly excreted in the urine.
CH2 CHCH2OH OH
S
S O C

Pb
H C NH
S Pb
S
H3C C S

CH2 CHCH2OH CH3

Pb-Bal Chelate Pb-Penicillamine

Chelate
Arsenic
Uses:1) Arsenical compound were preferred for the
control of agricultural pests before the use of
organochlorine and organophosphates. E.g. lead
arsenate, white arsenic, methyl arsenic sulfide.
2) As pigments and dyes, glass manufacture, wood
preservatives, in veterinary medicine 9organic
arsenical).
Distribution in the body: A single oral dose of inorganic
arsenic results in elevated arsenic concentration in
liver, kidney, lungs and intestinal mucosa. Arsenic
concentration are high in skin, hair and nails.
Toxicity/Biochemical effect: Toxicity varies with chemical
form
Inorganic arsenicals>Organic trivalent compouns>
Inorganic arsenates>arsonium comp>elemental arsenic

Insolubility in water and body

fluids

SH O
A) Enzyme + =
AS-O-
SH
O

S
AS- O- + 2OH-
enzyme

S
 O- SH CH2
S CH2
B) –O- As + CH2 O As CH2
O-
SH CH
S CH
CH2
Arsenite CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2

CH2
C O

C O
Protein

Protein

Dihydrilipoic Inactivated protein

acid-protein complex with arsenite

C) By virtue of its chemical similarity to P, arsenic interferes with some biochemical

processes involving P
 CH2OPO32-

CH2OPO32- Additional
H C OH Phosphate process leading ATP
C O H C OH

H C O

OPO32-
Glyceraldehyde 3-
Phosphate 1,3-diphospho glycerate
CH2OPO32 - Nonenzymatic
spontaneous hydrolysis
Arsenite( H C OH
As2O3) Preventing ATP
C O
formation
O-
OAs O
O-

1-arseno-3-phosphoglycerate

3 phosphoglycerate +
arsenate
D) Arsenic com. at high concentration coagulate proteins
by attacking sulphur bonds maintaining the secondary
and tertiary structures of proteins.
Cadmium
‘Itai-itai-byo’ or ouch-ouch disease occurred in Japan
after 2nd world war.
Rice paddies Contaminated rice
Irrigation water contaminated with
high levels of the metal

Cadmium is one of the most toxic trace elements in the

environment. Like other heavy metals, Cd binds
rapidly to extracellular and intracellular proteins,
disrupting membrane and cell function.
Characteristics and uses: Cd is a nonessential trace
element and has a greater affinity for thiol ligands than
does Zn. It binds to sulfur containing ligands more
tightly than Cu but Hg and Pb form more stable sulfur
complexes than does Cd.
Use: in steel industry, electrical parts, pigments, rubber,
pesticides. As is strongly absorbs neutrons, it is also
used in nuclear reactor.
Exposure: Tobacco smoke is the largest single source.
Absorption of Cd from the lungs is much greater than
from the GIT, smoking contributes large portion.
Cigarette 1.5 to 2.0 μg of Cd++ 70% of
which passes into the smoke.
Cadmium in food: Cd exposure in the general
environment comes mainly from food. E.g. leafy
vegetables, grains and cereals.
Metabolism: Inhalation is more dangerous than
ingestion. Following absorption, cadmium appears in
the blood plasma bound in the albumin.
Biochemical effect: 1) Lung cancer, lung damage and
high blood pressure
2) Inhibition of protein synthesis, enzyme activity and
competition with other metals are main deleterious
effects of Cd.
3) Two mechanims are involved in enzyme inhibition.
a) Binding to -SH groups on the enzyme molecule
b) through competition with Zn and displacing it
from metalloenzymes
Cadmium and nutrition: Close relationship between Cd
toxicity and nutrition. Cadmium can antagonize
1) Cd has been shown to decrease serum Zn content
2) Harmful synergism exists between Fe deficiency and
Cd toxicity. Fe absorption inhibited at a Cd
dose of 1mg/ml.
3) Cd utilizes the same transport system as calcium,
inhibits its functioning.
Metalloenzymes contain metals in their structures. Their action
is inhibited when one metal ion of a metalloenzyme is replaced
by another metal ion of similar size and charge. Thus zn+2 in
some metalloenzymes is substituted by Cd+2 which leads to
cadmium toxicity. The enzymes inhibited by Cd+2 includes
adenosine triphosphatse, alcohol dehydrogenase, amylase,
carbonic anhydrase, peptidase activity in carboxy peptidase
and glutamic-oxalo acetic transaminase.
Hg+2, Pb+2, Cd+2 Effective enzyme inhibitor

SH S
+ Hg+2/Cd+2/ Pb+2 Hg
Enzyme Enzyme
S
SH

Mercury
• Liq at room temp
• Highest volatility
• High specific gravity
• Metals dissolve in Hg to form amalgams
Extraction and Uses: Cinnabar (HgS)
HgS+O2 Hg+SO2
4HgS+4CaO 4Hg+3CaS+CaSO4
1) In the manufacture of Hg batteries and other
electrical apparatus
2) Widely used in barometers
3) In paints as preservatives
4) Hg comp. such as acetate, oxide, chloride, sulfate
and phosphate are used as catalyst in industrial
chemistry.
5) In jewelery making, pesticides, Uv spectroscopy
CH3-Hg-C≡N(Methylmercury nitrile) H NH
NH2
CH3 -Hg-N-C
Methylmercurydicyandiamide
 O
Methylmercuryacetate
CH3-Hg-C
OCH3

C2H5-Hg-Cl (Ethylmercurychloride)
6) The largest consumer is the chlor-alkali industry
which manufactures Cl2 and NaOH by using Hg
electrodes.
Toxic Effects:
A) Elemental Hg is Fairly inert and non toxic. If
swallowed, it is excreted without serious damage. It
has a fairly high vapour pressure and so the vapour, if
inhaled, is quite toxic. Hence Hg should be handled
only in well-ventilated areas and spills should be
cleaned up as quickly as possible. Hg Vapour, when
leading to severe damage of the central nervous system.
B) Hg22+ + Cl- Insoluble chloride ions. Our
stomach contains a fairly high concentration of
chloride, Hg22+ is not toxic. Hg+2 is toxic as
1) It has high affinity for sulphur atoms S
cintaining amino acid of proteins.
2) Forms bonds with haemoglobin and serum albumin
(contain sulphydryl group).