Solar Energy Basics

Thermal and PV
ENGR. MAHESH KUMAR
Solar Spectrum
 Solar Spectrum
• Short wavelength ( λ < 0.4 micron) ultraviolet radiation is
absorbed by oxygen (O2 ), ozone (O3 ), and nitrogen (N2 ) in the
upper atmosphere.
• H2O and CO2 capture a good portion of the longer wavelength
radiation ( λ > 0.6 micron) in the visible and infrared region
• The energy flux or total insolation that strikes the top of the
earth’ s atmosphere is referred to as the solar constant and has a
value of 1,354 W/m2.
World Energy Budget
 World Energy Budget
• On average, about half of the energy incident on the earth ’ s
upper atmosphere makes it to the surface, with the rest
scattered, reflected, or absorbed and reradiated into space.
• About 21% of the solar flux reaches the surface as direct
radiation and about 29% as scattered or diffuse radiation.
• The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere,
oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules
(EJ) per year. The earth's energy use by mankind is
approximately 500 exajoules per year.
Global Insolation
 Global Insolation
• Global insolation" is the total insolation: direct + diffuse + reflected
light.
• Direct radiation is received from sun rays travelling in a straight line
from sun to the earth. Direction radiation is also termed as beam
radiation or direct beam radiation.
• Diffuse radiation does not have any fixed direction. When sun rays
are scattered by particles present in the atmosphere, these
scattered sun rays account for the diffuse radiation. Shadows of the
objects will not form if only diffuse and no direct radiation is
present.
 Global Insolation
• Reflected radiation is the component of radiation which is
reflected from surfaces other than air particles. Radiation
reflected from hills, trees, houses, water bodies accounts for
reflected radiation.
• Reflected radiation generally accounts for a small percent in
the global radiation but can contribute as much as 15% in
snowy regions.
• When the sky is clear and the sun is very high in the sky, direct
radiation is around 85% of the total insolation striking the
ground and diffuse radiation is about 15%. As the sun goes
lower in the sky, the percent of diffuse radiation keeps going
up until it reaches 40% when the sun is 10° above the horizon
Sun Angles
 Equinox?
• An equinox is a day when the sun is in its zenith over
the Equator, and the Earth experiences days and nights of
generally equal length. There are two equinoxes in a year:
around March 21 and around Sept. 22.
 Two Main Categories:
Solar Thermal Solar Photovoltaic (PV)

Water heating and cooking Electricity production

 Solar Thermal Energy

Cooking Water Heating

 Passive and Active Solar Thermal
Energy for Building
• The solar thermal energy in building usually involves
one or more of following approaches
1. passive thermal gain and reuse,
2. active capture of solar heat using solar collectors,
3. direct or indirect daylighting.
 Passive System
• The basic approach of passive systems is to utilize the
building’s structure to capture solar heat and transmit light,
where appropriate, to reduce artificial lighting needs.
• Certain building materials, such as stone, cement or concrete,
and adobe clay, have natural characteristics that are ideally
suited to capture and store heat.
Passive System
 Active System
• Active solar thermal systems are usually applied in
residences and commercial buildings for providing hot
water, heating, and air conditioning.
• these employ collectors that capture solar energy and
rapidly transfer thermal energy to a circulating working
fluid, which can be used immediately in the dwelling or
stored for later use.
Active System
Solar Water Heating
Solar Cooking
 Benefits of Solar Cooking
• Consumes no fuels/wood
– No loss of trees & habitat
– Trees sequester carbon
• Generates no air pollution
• Generates no greenhouse
gases
• Produces no smoke
– Cooking smoke kills over 1.6
million people each year,
mostly women & children,
according to a recent report
• Eliminates fire dangers
 More Benefits of Solar Cooking
• Cooks foods slowly and
thoroughly
• Preserves nutrients
• Foods will not burn
• Pots are easy to clean;
less clean water is
needed
• Use for canning
vegetables
• Use for dried fruit
• Kill insects in dry grains
 Solar Cooking
How Long Does it Take?

• Vegetables: 1.5 hrs

• Rice/wheat: 1.5-2 hrs
• Beans: 2-3 hrs
• Meats: 1-3 hrs
• Bread: 1-1.5 hrs
 Solar Electric
(Photovoltaic)
 Semiconductor Materials
• The atoms in a semiconductor are materials from either
group IV of the periodic table, or from a combination of
group III and group V (called III-V semiconductors), or of
combinations from group II and group VI (called II-VI
semiconductors). Because different semiconductors are
made up of elements from different groups in the
periodic table, properties vary between semiconductors.
Silicon, which is a group IV, is the most commonly used
semiconductor material
 Band Gap
• The band gap of a semiconductor is the minimum energy
required to excite an electron that is stuck in its bound
state into a free state where it can participate in
conduction.
• In graphs of the electronic band structure of solids, the
band gap generally refers to the energy difference (in
electron volts) between the top of the valence band and
the bottom of the conduction band in insulators and
semiconductors.
 Photovoltaic (PV) Hierarchy
• Cell < Module < Panel < Array
Solar Electric Systems
• Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert light
energy directly into electricity Commonly
known as “solar cells.”
 How Does it Work?
• Sunlight is composed of photons, or bundles of radiant
energy. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be
reflected or absorbed (transmitted through the cell).
Only the absorbed photons generate electricity. When
the photons are absorbed, the energy of the photons is
transferred to electrons in the atoms of the solar cell.
 How Does it Work?
• Solar cells are usually made of two thin pieces of silicon, the
substance that makes up sand and the second most common
substance on earth.
• One piece of silicon has a small amount of boron added to it,
which gives it a tendency to attract electrons. It is called the p-
layer because of its positive tendency.
• The other piece of silicon has a small amount of phosphorous
added to it, giving it an excess of free electrons. This is called the
n-layer because it has a tendency to give up negatively charged
electrons.
 Solar cell – Working Principle

 Operating diode in fourth quadrant generates power

How Does it Work?
 Site Selection – Tilt Angle

Max performance is
achieved when panels
are perpendicular to the
sun’s rays

Year round tilt = latitude

Winter + 15 lat.
Summer – 15 lat.
 Available Cell Technologies
• Single-crystal or Mono-crystalline Silicon

• Polycrystalline or Multi-crystalline Silicon

• Thin film
– Ex. Amorphous silicon or Cadmium Telluride
Monocrystalline Silicon Modules

• Most efficient
commercially available
module (11% - 14%)
• Most expensive to
produce
• Circular (square-round)
cell creates wasted space
on module
 Polycrystalline Silicon Modules

• Less expensive to make

than single crystalline
modules
• Cells slightly less efficient
than a single crystalline
(10% - 12%)
• Square shape cells fit into
module efficiently using
the entire space
 Amorphous Thin Film

• Most inexpensive
technology to produce
• Metal grid replaced with
transparent oxides
• Efficiency = 6 – 8 %
• Can be deposited on flexible
substrates
• Less susceptible to shading
problems
• Better performance in low
light conditions that with
crystalline modules
 Effects of Temperature

• As the PV cell
temperature
increases above
25º C, the module
Vmp decreases by
approximately 0.5%
per degree C
 Shading on Modules
• Depends on orientation of internal module
circuitry relative to the orientation of the
shading.
• SHADING can half
or even completely
eliminate the output
of a solar array!
 Tools

Surface Temperature
Insolation

Pyranometer Laser Thermometer

PV Wiring
 Series Connections

• Loads/sources wired in series

– VOLTAGES ARE ADDITIVE

– CURRENT IS EQUAL
 Parallel Connections

• Loads/sources wired in parallel:

– VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT

– CURRENTS ARE ADDITIVE
 Wiring Introduction

• Should wire in Parallel or

Series?
 Wire Components
• Conductor material = copper (most common)
• Insulation material = thermoplastic (most common)

• Wire exposed to sunlight must be classed as sunlight

resistant