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PROCESS CAPABILITY
Quality Specifications
– Performance, Features,
Reliability/Durability, Serviceability,
Aesthetics, and Perceived Quality.
7
Taguchi Concepts
Taguchi Concepts
Quality robustness
Quality loss function
Target-oriented quality
Quality Robustness
Ability to produce products uniformly
in adverse manufacturing and
environmental conditions
Remove the effects of adverse
conditions
Small variations in materials and
process do not destroy product quality
Quality Loss Function
Shows that costs increase as the
product moves away from what the
customer wants
Costs include customer
dissatisfaction, warranty
and service,
Traditional conformance
specifications are too simplistic
Taguchi’s View of Variation
• The quality loss function is based on the
concept that a service or product that
barely conforms to the specifications is
more like a defective service or product
than a perfect one.
Taguchi’s View of Variation
High High
Incremental Incremental
Cost of Cost of
Variability Variability
Zero Zero
𝑳𝑶𝑺𝑺 𝑿 = 𝑲 ∗ (𝑿 − 𝑻)𝟐
ASSIGNMENT
• A company selling fruit juice has specified
a pack size as 500 ml. As per packaging
act, the pack must contain within ± 5% of
quantity specified. If the quantity is found
to be less by the costumer, the company is
required to replace it with a new pack at a
cost of `100/-. Calculate the loss in each
case if the deviation is 2%,3%& 4%. Will
you like to specify a different tolerance
limit to reduce the hidden costs?
MEAN COST
500 100
K 0.16
% CHANGE
FROM
MEAN Change in ml LOSS
0.05 0.25 0.01
0.1 0.5 0.04
0.15 0.75 0.09
0.2 1 0.16
0.25 1.25 0.25
0.5 2.5 1
0.75 3.75 2.25
1 5 4
1.25 6.25 6.25
1.5 7.5 9
1.75 8.75 12.25
2 10 16
2.25 11.25 20.25
2.5 12.5 25
2.75 13.75 30.25
3 15 36
3.25 16.25 42.25
3.5 17.5 49
3.75 18.75 56.25
4 20 64
4.25 21.25 72.25
4.5 22.5 81
4.75 23.75 90.25
5 25 100
Taguchi Concepts
Engineering and experimental design
methods to improve product and process
design
Identify key component and process
variables affecting product variation
PROCESS CAPABILITY
• Process capability is the ability of a
process to produce output that conforms
to specifications.
PRODUCT & PROCESS
Lower Upper
specification specification
limit limit
Process mean, m
Process Capability
Nominal
value
Process distribution
Lower Upper
specification specification
Minutes
20 25 30
Six sigma
Four sigma
Two sigma
Lower Upper
specification specification
Mean
PROCESS CAPABILITY
LSL CL USL
Process Capability
Measurement
• A process capability study : study specific information
about the performance of a process .
– Where is the process centered?
– How much variability exists in the process?
– Is the performance relative to specifications acceptable?
– What proportion of output will be expected to meet
specifications?
– What factors contribute to variability?
Process Capability
• Process limits
• Specification limits
PROCESS CAPABILITY
A simple ratio:
Specification Width
_________________________________________________________
Process distribution
Lower Upper
specification specification
Minutes
20 25 30
X LTL UTL X
C pk Min ;
3 3
The Cereal Box Problem
• We are the maker of this cereal. Consumer reports
has just published an article that shows that we
frequently have less than 470gms of cereal in a box.
The print on the pack shows contents to be of
500gms.
• Let’s assume that as per the packaging act we
must be within ± 5 percent of the weight printed on
the box.
• We go out and buy 1,000 boxes of cereal and find
that they weight an average of 480.45gms with a
standard deviation of 10.55gms.
Process Capability
• Specification or
Tolerance Limits
Upper Spec =525 gm
X LTL UTL X
Lower Spec =475 gm C pk Min ;
• Observed Weight 3 3
– Mean = 480.45gm
– Std Dev = 10.55gm 480.55 475 525 480.55
C pk Min ;
3 * (10.55) 3 * (10.55)
C pk Min.1754; 1.4044
C pk .1754
Assessing Process Capability
30.0 – 20.0
Cp = = 1.23
6(1.35)
30.0 – 20.0
Cp = = 1.39
6(1.20)
• Assignable causes
Process Capability
Measurement
• Process capability is the ability of a process to produce
output that conforms to specifications.
• A process capability study is a carefully planned study
designed to yield specific information about the
performance of a process under specified operating
conditions. Typical questions include:
– Where is the process centered?
– How much variability exists in the process?
– Is the performance relative to specifications acceptable?
– What proportion of output will be expected to meet
specifications?
– What factors contribute to variability?
Types of Process Capability
Studies
• Process characterization study - how a
process performs under actual operating
conditions : long period of time
• Peak performance study - how a process
performs under ideal conditions
• Component variability study - relative
contribution of different sources of variation
(e.g., process factors, measurement
system)
Process Capability
Measurement
• Samples from market
• Decide to study one m/c or process
• Decide the measurement devices
• Fairly large sample for study
Process Variation Histograms
Measurement System
Evaluation
• Observed variation in process output
stems from the natural variation that
occurs in the output itself as well as the
measurement system.
• The total observed variation in production
output is the sum of the true process
variation plus variation due to
measurement:
Errors in Manual Inspection
• Complexity: The number of defects caught by
an inspector decreases with more parts and
less orderly arrangement.
• Defect rate: When the product defect rate is
low, inspectors tend to miss more defects
than when the defect rate is higher.
• Inspection rate: The inspector’s performance
degrades rapidly as the inspection rate
increases.
Metrology
• …the science of measurement is defined broadly
as the collection of people, equipment, facilities,
methods, and procedures used to assure the
correctness or adequacy of measurements.
• National and international trade requires weights
and measures organizations that assure uniform
and accurate measures used in trade, national or
regional measurement standards laboratories,
standards development organizations, and
accredited and internationally recognized
calibration and testing laboratories.
Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy is defined as the difference between the
true value and the observed average of a
measurement.
– Accuracy is measured as the amount of error in a
measurement in proportion to the total size of the
measurement.
– Caused due to lack of calibration
• Precision is defined as the closeness of repeated
measurements to each other.
– Precision relates to the variance of repeated
measurements.
– Robustness of the instrument/ variance due to
random reasons
EXAMPLE
1 0.248 0.258
2 0.246 0.259
3 0.251 0.258
AVG 0.2483333 0.2583333
ERROR % 0.6666667 3.3333333
VARIANCE 0.00000633 0.00000033
Calibration
• …the process of verifying the capability and performance of an item
of measuring and test equipment compared to traceable
measurement standards.
• The National bodies maintain national measurement standards.
• In India Depart of Weights & Measures
Repeatability and
Reproducibility Analysis
• Repeatability (equipment variation, EV) – variation
in multiple measurements by an individual using
the same instrument.
• Reproducibility (appraiser variation, AV) - variation
in the same measuring instrument used by different
individuals.
• Parts variation PV
• Total variation TV
• A repeatability and reproducibility (R&R) study is a
study of variation in a measurement system using
statistical analysis.
R&R Studies
1. Select m operators and n parts
2. Calibrate the measuring instrument
3. Randomly measure each part by each
operator for r trials
4. Compute key statistics to quantify repeatability
and reproducibility
5. 𝑴𝒊𝒋𝒌 is the measurement done by operator i on
part j on trial k
AVERAGE OF OPERATOR
• Average measurement of each operator
𝒙𝒊 = ( 𝒋 𝒌 𝑴𝒊𝒋𝒌)/nr
• Largest - smallest
𝐱 ̅𝑫 = max(i){ 𝒙 ̅𝒊 } − 𝐦𝐢𝐧(𝐢)
{𝒙𝒊 }
𝑹=( 𝑹𝒊 )/𝒎
EV,RV & R&R
𝑬𝑽 = 𝑲𝟏 ∗ 𝑹
𝑷𝑽 = 𝑹𝒑 ∗𝑲𝟑
• Total variation
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R&R Evaluation
• A measurement system is adequate if R&R is low relative to the
total variation, or equivalently, the part variation is much greater
than the measurement system variation.