ET H N O G R A P H Y

A M E T H O D O F D ATA C O L L E C T I O N
Presented by:

 Maria Sarshad IAS06SSF17

 Ailiya Rizvi IAS09SSF17
 Javaria Naeem IAS10SSF17
What is ethnography?

Ethnography is the art and science of describing a group or

culture. The description may be of a small tribal group in an
exotic land or a classroom in middle-class suburbia.
(David M. Fetterman, 1998)
 Do you know?
 Ethnography came from the Greek word
“ethnos” = folk/people and “graphy” = writing.
 It identifies its roots in sociology and
anthropology.
 Ethnography was primarily associated with social
anthropological research.
 ANTHROPOLOGICAL
RESEARCH

Investigator visits usually a foreign land, gains access to a

group, spends a considerable amount of time with that group
with the aim of uncovering its culture, watches and listens to
what people say and do, engages people in conversations to
explore issues of interest, takes field notes, and returns home to
write up the fruits of his/her labors.
Key Points
 The main research method associated with ethnography is participant
observation.
 The participant observer/ethnographer immerses him or herself in a group for
an extended period of time, observing behavior, listening to what is said in
conversations both between others and with the fieldworker, and asking
questions.
 The term ‘ethnography’ is sometimes preferred because ‘participant
observation’ seems to imply just observation, though in practice participant
observers do more than simply observe.
Contd..
 Relies on up-close, personal experience and possible
participation, not just observation, by researchers
trained in the art of ethnography.
 Refers to a study in which participant observation is
the prevalent research method but that also has a
specific focus on the culture of the group in which
the ethnographer is immersed.
 Characteristics of Ethnographic Research

 Contextual
The research is carried out in the context in which the subjects
normally live and work.
 Unobtrusive
The research avoids manipulating the phenomenon under
investigation.
 Longitudinal
The research is relatively long.
Contd..

 Collaborative
The research involves the participation of stakeholders other than the
researcher.
 Interpretative
The researcher carries out interpretative analysis of the data.
 Organic
There is interaction between questions/hypothesis and data
collection/interpretation.
 Ethnography as a method of data collection
 People’s behavior is studied in everyday contexts, rather than under
experimental conditions created by the researcher.
 Data is gathered from a range of sources, but observation and informal
conversations are usually the main ones.
 Approach to data collection is unstructured:
 Doesn’t involve detailed plan at the beginning.
 No categories are used for interpreting what people say.
Contd..
 The research is not unsystematic, initially the data is collected in a raw
form.
 The focus is usually on a single setting or group of relatively small scale. It
may include even a single individual as a focal point.
 Data analysis involves interpretation of the meanings and functions of
human actions.
 Watching what happens, listening to what is said, asking questions through
formal and informal interviews, collecting documents and artifacts.
 Data Collection Through Ethnographic
Research Methods
Research Type
Participant and non-participant observation
Semi-structured interviews (formal
/informal)
Unstructured interviews (informal)
Collected material (documents)
Data Collection
Watching or being part of a social context
Open and closed questions that cover identified
topics
Open questions that enable a free development of
conversation
Anything from artefacts, letters, books, reports,
published and unpublished documents, papers,
public records, quotations, narrative descriptions,
photographs and videos.
MTHODLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
 Naturalism
 Understanding
 Discovery
NATURALISM

Aim of social research is to capture the character of naturally

occurring human behaviors, and this can only be achieved by first
hand contact with it , not by inferences from what people do in
artificial settings like experiments or from what they say in
interviews about what they do elsewhere.
UNDERSTANDING
From this point of view, if we are to be able to explain human actions effectively
we must gain an understanding of the cultural perspectives on which they are
based . This is necessary when we are studying a society that is alien to us,
since we shall find much of what we see and hear puzzling
DISCOVERY

Another feature of ethnographic thinking is a conception of the

research process as inductive or discovery based; rather then being
limited to the testing of explicit hypothesis.
RESEARCH PROCEDURE
 The design of an ethnographic research is deceptively simple. It
appears to require only one “act naturally”.
 Ethnographic research is all about looking beyond and a process of
discovery.
 It is something that can not be programmed.
 It is not a matter of methodological rules but a practical activity
requiring the exercise of one’s judgment.
THE ETHNOGRAPHIC PROCESS
 Make observations
 Find people to talk to
 Start conversations
 Build rapport/trust
 Ask questions
 Write things down
 Pool what you learn
 Respond to what you learn
METHODOLOGY
 Step 1: Preparation
 Step 2: Field Notes
 Step 3: Analysis
 Step 4: Reporting
STEP 1: PREPARATION
 Familiarize yourself with
Organization policies
 Work culture
 Current system and its history
 Identify the focus of the study
Set initial goals and prepare questions
 Can be guided by designer goals
 Gain access and permission
 Gate-keepers vs sponsors
STEP 2: FIELD STUDY
 Establish rapport with managers and users.
 Write as quickly as possible for accuracy.
 record everything: Your visits, observations,
impressions, feelings, emerging questions
etc.
 Write full field notes at the very latest end of
the day.
 Use a tape recorder.
 Notes must be vivid and clear.
 Need to take copious notes.
 Types of Field Notes
 Mental Notes:
Useful when it is inappropriate to be seen taking notes.
 Jotted Notes (Scratch notes):
Brief notes written down on pieces of paper or in small notebooks to jog one’s
memory about events that should be written up later.
 Full Field Notes:
Detailed notes, made as soon as possible, which will be the researcher’s main
data source. Such notes should include details about the settings (perhaps maps or
diagrams of rooms where the action has been observed), events, people’s
behavior, and talk. They should be written at the end of the day or sooner if
possible.
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS
Overt
Ethnographer informs participants of the study and is transparent
about research.
Covert
Ethnographer does not inform participants of the study and must
balance ethical issue of deception.
STEP 3: ANALYSIS
 Compile data into databases:
Numerical
 Textual
 Multimedia
 Quantify data and compile statistics.
 Reduce and interpret data.
 Review and redevelop ideas
STEP 4: REPORTING
 Consider multiple audiences and respective goals.
 Prepare the report and present the findings.
 Visuals can be important in supporting written text.
 Have debriefing meetings.
METHODOLOGY OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

Spardley (1980) identified the sequence of steps making up the

methodology of ethnographic research:
1. Selecting an ethnographic project:
The scope of these projects can vary greatly, from studying a whole
complex society to a single social situation or institution.
2. Asking ethnographic questions:
The researcher needs to have questions in mind that will guide
what he or she sees and hears and the collection of data.
CONTD…
3. Collecting Ethnographic Data:
 The researcher does fieldwork to find out the activities of the people, the
physical characteristics of the situation, and what it feels like to be part of the
situation.
 This step generally begins with an overview comprising broad descriptive
observation. Then after looking at the data, you move on to more focused
observations.
 Hence you use participant observation, in depth interviews and so on to
gather data.
CONTD…

4. Making an Ethnographic Record

This step includes taking field notes and photographs, making maps, and using
other appropriate means to record the observations.

5. Analyzing Ethnographic Data

The fieldwork is always followed by data analysis, which leads to new
questions and new hypothesis, more data collection and field notes and more
analysis. The cycle continues until the project is completed.
CONTD…
6. Writing The Ethnography
 The ethnography should be written so that the culture or group is brought to
life, making reader feel they understand the people and their way of life.
 The ethnographic report can range in length from a several pages to a
volume or two.
 You can greatly simplify this task by beginning the writing early as data
accumulate instead waiting until the end. The writing task will also be easier
if before writing you read other well written ethnographies.
ETHNOGRAPHIC REPORT
 Purpose statement
 Executive summary
 Main body
 Future research
 Appendix
 Debriefing
 Don’t
 Ask simple Yes/No questions
 Ask leading questions
 Ask unfamiliar jargon
 Lead/guide user
Do
 Ask open-ended questions
 Phrase questions properly to
avoid biasness
 speak in their language
 Let user notice things his/her
own
SOME NEW ETHNOGRAPHIC METHODS
 Shadowing
 Day in the life studies
 Ethnography lite
 Consumer ethnography
 Field observation
 Contextual inquiry
 Contextual research
 New product ethnography
 Observational research
 AMBIGUITIES IN DATA COLLECTION

 More data, more effort is required to analyze it.

 Time consuming
 Deciding when and where to collect data can be a critical decision.
 A deep analysis at one point may miss others, while a broad brush may miss
critical small details.
 Social data can be difficult to access e.g. when political forces oppose
potentially critical investigations or where rituals are considered secret.
 ETHICAL CONCERNS

There are some ethical issues in collecting data through ethnographic research.
These include:
 Informed consent
 Protection of Privacy
 Harm to participants
 Exploitation
 MERITS OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
METHODS
 Data is collected in a large amount for in-depth study as more data leads to
better codes, categories, theories and conclusions.
 As the researcher is “there” for an extended period of time, the ethnographer
sees what people are doing as well as what they say they are doing.
 The researcher is able to gain an in-depth understanding of the people, the
organization, and the broader context within which they work.
 Data collected through such methods enable the researchers to study people in
real life situations.
Contd..

 Data collected through semi or unstructured interviews, observations and

documents helps in explaining the meaning and context.
 Ethnographic research methods help to mitigate the risk of neglecting
unexpected issues as these issues will (hopefully) become apparent to the
researcher.
 Data collected through ethnographic methods can be very useful in uncovering
and analyzing relevant user attitudes and emotions.
 DEMERITS OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
METHODS

 One of the main disadvantage of ethnographic research is that it takes a lot

longer than most other kinds of research.
 An ethnographer usually studies just one organization or one culture in depth,
that is why it doesn’t have much breadth.
 Data collected can be viewed as too subjective.
 Data collection depends on the role of researcher.
 High potential for role conflict for practitioner researchers.
 There could be cultural biasness in ethnographic methods.
 APPLICABILITY
 Ethnographic methods are valuable in gaining a deeper understanding of a
design problem.
 They are used by the researchers and practitioners in order to develop their
understanding of the relevant domain, audience(s), processes, goals and
context(s) of use.
 Ethnographic methods (such as participant observation) are used to evaluate an
existing design.
 Such methods are most favorable for very complex and/or critical design
problems.
 They are also best applicable in highly critical systems where failure or error
can lead to disaster.
ARTICLE