Elementary Spatial

Analysis

Kuliah#6
TUJUAN PEMBELAJARAN

 MAHASISWA AKAN MAMPU MENJELASKAN

PRINSIP DASAR ANALISIS KERUANGAN
 MAHASISWA AKAN MAMPU MEMBUAT
KERANGKA KERJA ANALISIS DALAM BENTUK
FLOWCHART
 MAHASISWA AKAN MAMPU MENDESKRIPSIKAN
ALIRAN DATA DAN PROSES ANALISIS SERTA
OUTPUT INFORMASI YANG DIHASILKAN
BERDASARKAN KERANGKA KERJA
GARIS BESAR MATERI
 Spatial Analysis
 Flowcharting
 Query
 Defining spatial characteristics
 Higher-level objects
– Centroids
– Nodes
– Boundaries
– Networks
– Regions
Spatial Analysis

 Spatial analysis: Way in which we turn raw

data into useful information
– A set of techniques whose results are dependent
on the locations of the objects being analyzed

– Variety of methods

– Powerful computers

– Intelligent users
Preparing a Spatial Analysis:
Flowcharting
Flowchart tools provided by: ESRI’s Model Builder,
ERDAS’s GIS Modeler, etc.)
Objective – systematizing thinking and documenting
procedures about a GIS application/project

General form of most GIS flowcharts:

Operation
Input Output

(Plus conditions)
From Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, Demers (2005)
 GIS Data Query
 Important, useful tool associated with DBMS
 Why?
– Narrowing down information
– Better understanding of map
• Complexity
• How entities of interest spatially related to other data layers
– Ability to make further measurements, comparisons
• Total numbers  relative numbers (e.g., density)

 What might you want to know?

– Which features occur most often
– How often they occur
– Where are they located?  spatial pattern
 GIS Data Query
 What is it?
– Using tools to find records meeting specific criteria
 How?
– Select criteria
– Use operators to
define expression
• Simple
• Complex
And: Intersection of sets
Ex.: ([area] > 1500) and ( [b_room] > 3)
Or: Union of sets
Ex: ([age] < 18 or [age] > 65)
Not: Subtracts one set from another set
Ex.: ([sub_region] = "N Eng") and
( not ( [state_name] = "Maine"))
 Successive Querying
Query

Selected
Records

Records
New Set
Selected

Selected
Records

Records
Add to Set
Selected

Selected
Records

Records
Select from Set

Graphic: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University
GIS Data Query: Vector

 Examining vector entities’

attributes
–Check spatial objects’ properties
• Using identify tool
• Using find tool
• Performing queries
GIS Data Query: Raster

 Examining raster attributes

– Unique colors assigned to attribute values

– Tabulating results  # of grid cells in each

category
• For those interested in landscape ecology 
fragmentation statistics
Raster Data Query:
Fragmentation Statistics
 Landscape Composition
– Proportional Abundance of each Class
– Richness: Number of different patch types
– Evenness: Relative abundance of different patch
types
 Landscape Configuration
– Patch size distribution and density
– Patch shape complexity
– Isolation/Proximity

See Fragstats website:

http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html
Defining Spatial Characteristics:
Points
 Nominal, Ordinal, Interval/ratio data
 Define, separate, retrieve on the basis of:
– Category
– Class
– Magnitude
 Examining classes of data & the individuals within
each class
– Distance between features in same category, class
– Distribution: Clustered vs. random or regular
 Examining relationships between point objects &
other objects
 Dr. John Snow & the Cholera Map

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Snow-cholera-map.jpg
http://www.unl.edu/nac/conservation/atlas/Map_Html/Demographics/National/Minority_Operated_Farms/1997.htm
Defining Spatial Characteristics:
Lines
 Define, separate, retrieve on the basis of:
– Category
– Class
– Magnitude
 Single line entity
– Attribute values may change along length
 Lines in relation to their surroundings
– Easiest in vector, using topological data
 Length, Azimuthal direction, Shape/sinuosity
– For entire line or its individual segments
 Defining Spatial Characteristics: Lines

Sinuosity information
is used in developing
stream classifications

http://forest.mtu.edu/staff/mdhyslop/gis/sinuosity.html
http://clerk.ci.seattle.wa.us/~ordpics/115137At10TRFigA4.gif
Defining Spatial Characteristics:
Areas
 Define, separate, retrieve on the basis of:
– Category
– Class
– Magnitude
 Shape: Deviation from particular geometry (e.g.,
circle or square)
 Elongation: Ratio between long & short axes
 Orientation
 Size  perimeter, area, length
 Contiguity: Measure of wholeness (vs. perforation)
 Heterogeneity: Measure of how much map area is in
contact with polygonal features sharing same
attributes
 Defining Spatial Characteristics:
Areas Major axis
• Along longest part of
polygon
Minor axis
• Must divide polygon in two
equal parts
Minor axis
Major axis
• Along shortest part of
polygon
2.5 • Must divide the polygon in
two equal parts
2.5 R=1
Major axis / Minor axis ratio
• Values > 1 denote
elongated polygon
3.5 • Value = 1 denotes uniform
polygon
1.5 R = 2.33

Graphic: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University
Defining Spatial Characteristics:
Areas
 Perimeter
– Length of all segments
of closed polygon
– Length of the contact
surface of a feature
with other features
Area • Lake shoreline
• Fence

Perimeter  Area

Graphic: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University
Defining Spatial Characteristics:
Areas
Perimeter = 7 miles
 Shape
Area = 25 sqr miles  Perimeter to Area Ratio
– perimeter/area
– Expression of the
CI = 7 / 25 = 0.28 geographical complexity
of a polygon
CI = 15 / 25 = 0.60 • High ratio  complex
• Low ratio  simple
Area = 25 sqr miles

Perimeter = 15 miles
Graphic: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University
Higher Level Objects

 Higher-level objects: Need to be

determined rather than being encoded
through digitizing

 Types
– Points
– Lines
– Areas
Higher-level Point Objects
 Types
– Centroids
– Nodes

 Centroid: Indicates geographic center of

polygon
– Simplest to calculate for simple shapes (e.g.,
rectangle, circle)
– Not well-suited to raster
– Calculated using the trapezoidal rule
• Polygon separated into overlapping polygons
• Each polygon’s centroid calculated, then weighted-
average calculated
Higher-level Point Objects:
Centroids

From Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, Demers (2005)

Higher-level Point Objects:
Centroids

 Types of Centroid:
– Simple centroid: Absolute geographic
center of polygon
– Center-of-gravity centroid (mean center):
Central point of distribution
– Weighted mean center: Centroid
calculated on basis of location &
associated weighting factor
 Centroid Types

From Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, Demers (2005)

 Centroid Types: Mean Center
Mean Center
(Center of gravity)
Average individual X &Y
coordinates for all points
in the coverage/layer
Result: Single pair of X, Y
values representing the
central point of
distribution

From Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, Demers (2005)

Centroid Types: Weighted Mean
Center

 Characteristics from attribute table used

as additional weighting factor
 Weighting factor
– Each X, Y coordinate multiplied by a weight
– Weighted mean center derived from sum of
weighted coordinates divided by number of
points
 Centroid Types: Weighted Mean Center

From Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, Demers (2005)

Higher-level Point Objects: Nodes

 Locators along line & area entities

 Generally encoded during input

– Difficulties arise when coded as point
rather than node

 Used to isolate line segments

Higher-level Line Objects
 Types
– Boundaries/borders: Major change in
single or multiple attribute values as
move across

– Networks: Interconnected line entities

whose attributes share a common theme
related to flow
Higher-level Line Objects:
Networks
 Types:
– Straight line network
– Branching network
– Circuit

 Networks can be directed or undirected

– Directed: Flows move only in a single direction
– Undirected: Flows can go back and forth along
the network in either direction

 If attribute data are lacking  limits ability to

use linear features as higher-level objects
From Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, Demers (2005)
Higher-level Area Objects
 Regions: Areas of uniform content within a
coverage
– Homogeneous sets or homogeneous
combinations of factors
– Types:
• Contiguous: Wholly contained in a single polygon
• Fragmented: Comprised of more than 1 polygonal form
separated by intervening space that doesn’t share same
attributes
• Perforated: Uniform polygon interspersed with smaller
polygons not sharing the same mix of attributes
– Region: Matrix
– Perforations: Smaller internal polygons that don’t share
same attributes
Higher-level Area Objects

From Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, Demers (2005)

Wrapping up: You should know

 The purpose of flowcharting

 The why & how of using attributes in
search/query
 What higher-level attributes are & what they
can be used for
– Centroids
– Nodes
– Boundaries
– Networks
– Regions
Limits of Analysis

 Static, one point in time

 Search for patterns, anomalies
 Generating hypotheses
 Revealing what would otherwise be
invisible
 Form vs. process
Modeling multiple stages

 Perhaps different points in time

 Implementing ideas and hypotheses
 Experimenting with policy options
 Scenario based planning
Types of Model

 Static models and indicators

 Combining GIS layers through overlay
e.g., using ModelBuilder
 Universal Soil Loss Equation
 A = R x K x LS x C x P
 DRASTIC model of groundwater
vulnerability
 Karst groundwater protection model
 DRASTIC
Santa Barbara Regional
Impacts of Growth Study: 2040
forecasts
Karst groundwater protection model in
Model Builder
Model result
 Modeling Approach

 Individual vs. Aggregate models

 Is it possible to model every individual
element in the system?
 Every molecule of groundwater?
Every person in a crowd?
 Autonomous agent models