QUESTION ONE

Discuss the reciprocity and reaction theorems in antennas

RECIPROCITY THEOREM
It states that the receiver and transmitter properties are identical hence antennas do
not have distinct transmit and receive patterns in the receiver mode.
It is the most useful property of antennas.
It refers to the transmitting and receiving antenna beams being the same. This
means that the antenna can be used as both the transmitting and receiving antenna.
PROPERTIES UNDER REPROCITY
 Equality of directional partners, radiation pattern of the transmitting antenna 1, which
transmits the receiving antenna 2, is equal if it transmits and antenna 1 receives signals.
 Equality of directives, directivity is the same for both the transmitting and receiving
antenna.
 Equality of effective length, the value of the maximum aperture is the same for both the
transmitting and receiving antenna.
 QUESTION TWO

Discuss beamforming, diversity combining, Raleigh-fading and trellis-coded modulation in smart antenna.
BEAM FORMING
This is type of radio frequency management in which the access point uses multiple
antennas to send out the same signal. By sending the multiple signals and analyzing from
clients, the wireless LAN infrastructure can adjust the signal it sends out and determine
the best path the signal would take in order to reach a client device.
Beam forming sharpens the RF beam as it traverses the physical space of the enterprise.
DIVERSITY COMBINING
It is a technique applied to combine the multiple received signals of a diversity device into a
single signal that uses two or more antennas to improve the quality and reliability of a wireless
link.
Often, especially in urban and indoor environments, there is no clear line (LOS) between
transmitter and receiver. Instead, the signal is reflected along multiple paths before finally
being received. Each of these bounces can introduce phase shifts, time delays, attenuations,
and distortions that can destructively interfere with one another at the aperture of the receiving
antenna.
Antenna diversity is especially effective at mitigating these multipath situations.
RALEIGH-FADING
A smart antenna system consists of an antenna array, associated RF hardware, and
a computer controller that changes the array pattern in response to the radio frequency
environment, in order to improve the performance of a communication or radar system.
Switched-beam antenna systems are the simplest form of smart antenna.
An array consists of two or more antennas (the elements of the array) spatially arranged and electrically
interconnected to produce a directional radiation pattern.

Modeling a channel is calculating all the physical processing effecting a signal from the transmitter to the receiver.

A close approximation of attenuation due to multipath fading in wireless channels can be done by Rayleigh fading (for
the case where no line of sight component present) and Rician fading (for the case where line of sight component
present).
Examples of channel modals, are many about the ones for wireless links are shown below;

Rayleigh Fading is a reasonable model when there are many objects in the environment
that scatter the radio signal before it reaches the receiver.
Application of Rayleigh fading channel modelling;

Most applicable to instances where there are many different signal paths, none of which is
dominant, in this way all the signal paths will vary and can have an impact on the overall
signal that is received, if the signals received are in phase then they sum up, otherwise they
cancel out.
Modal of Rayleigh channel parameters
1. PDF in AOD-Probability Density Function
2. Mean AOA-Angle of Arrival
3. Power Delay Profile (sub paths)
4. Doppler Frequency-relative motion between the transmitter and the receiver causes an
apparent shift in the frequency of the received signal due to Doppler shift this is due to
change in path lengths and change of signal level
TRELLIS CODED MODULATION
Is the modulation scheme that transmits information with high efficiency over band limited
channels such as telephone lines. TCM reduces power requirements without any bandwidth
expansion.
TCM is a bandwidth efficient modulation based on convolutional coding. It conserves
bandwidth by doubling the number of constellation points of the signal. This way the bit rate
increases but the symbol rate stays the same. Unlike a true Convolutional code, not all
incoming bits are coded and only 1 extra bit is always added. Increasing the constellation size
reduces Euclidean distances between the constellation points but sequence coding offers a
coding gain that overcomes the power disadvantage of going to the higher constellation. The
decoding metric is the Euclidean distance and not the Hamming distance. TCM uses set-
partitioning and small number of states.
THANK YOU