Nuclear Power Plant.

Nipu Kumar Das.

Lecturer. Dept. of EEE
CUET
 Nuclear Power Plant.
Nuclear power is any nuclear technology designed to extract
usable energy from atomic nuclei via controlled nuclear reactions.
The most common method use today is nuclear fission & other
methods might one day include nuclear fusion.
Similar to fossil power plants, nuclear power plants produce
steam to drive a turbine-generator set to make electricity. The
heat source for today’s nuclear power plants is the fissioning of
uranium in contrast to combustion for the fossil units.
 Worldwide Nuclear Power
Provides 20% of the world’s electricity
Provides 7% of world’s total energy usage
Cost is currently similar to fossil fuels
Nuclear reactors have zero emissions of
smog or CO2
There are 440 nuclear power reactors in 31
countries 30 more are under construction
They produce a total of 351 billion watts of
electricity
 Atomic Structure.
All matter is composed of unit particles called
atoms.
An atom consist of a relatively heavy,
positively charged nucleus and number of
much negatively charged electrons orbiting
around the nucleus.
Nucleus consist of proton & Neutron, which
together are called nucleons.
 Atomic Structure.

• Today an atom's structure (above) is similar to

Rutherford's model of 1910.
 Atomic Structure.
At the centre of the atom protons and neutrons
form a tiny but 'heavy' nucleus. Protons are
positively charged.
Neutrons have no charge, i.e. are neutral.
Protons and neutrons have the same mass.
Electrons are negatively charged and have
almost no mass.
Electrons occupy a lot of 'empty' space.
 Basic Notation
Z is the number of protons, charge number
or atomic number
N is the number of neutrons
A = Z + N is the number of nucleons, A is
called the mass number A

Z
X
 Basic Notation
A

Z
X
• is a specific nucleus, X is chemical symbol.
A
X * is in an excited state
Z
 The Nucleus.

Nuclear Diameter ~10-15 m

(atomic diameter ~10-10 m)
The term “nucleon” refers to either a proton
or a neutron in the nucleus.
The term “nuclide” refers to a nucleus with a
specific number of protons and neutrons
 Nuclides and Isotopes.
Isotope = atoms with same Z and different A
“Many elements have isotopes but for most elements only one or
two isotopes are stable. Unstable isotopes are usually
radioactive. This means they emit radiation to become stable .”
Nuclide = atoms/nuclei with same Z and A
and being in a specific energy state.
Isomer = long-lived excited states,
 Nuclides and Isotopes..
Example. Isotopes
235 238

92
U U
92
Example: Isomers
113 113m

49
In In
49
 Atomic mass unit.
The Masses of the three primary
atomic subparticles are.

Neutron mass mn =1.008665amu=1.674x10-27 Kg

Proton mass mp =1.007277amu=1.673x10-27 Kg
Electron mass me=1.0005486amu=9.109x10-30 Kg
 Nuclear Reactions vs. Chemical
Reactions.
In a Chemical rection.
 Nuclear Reactions vs. Chemical
Reactions.
.Example:
combustion
Fossil Fuel CO2 + 4 ev.

6.5 x 10 -19 j
C + O2 = C O2 + 4 ev
 Nuclear Reactions vs. Chemical
Reactions.
A nuclear reaction can be expressed as,
A1 A2 A3 A4

A + B C + D
z1 z2 z3 z4
where A and C are the initial and final nuclei, B is the
incident particle or light nucleus (projectile) and D is the
emitted particle, light nucleus or photon
Z1+Z2=Z3+Z4 & A1+A2=A3+A4
In nuclear reactions, the product do not have the same
reactant nuclei but some other nuclei. The number of
nucleons in the product are the same as those in the
reactants.
 Nuclear Reactions vs. Chemical
Reactions.
Sometimes, Electromagnetic radiations (γ-
rays) and neutrino(ν) are often emited but
they do not effect the balance, since only
they carry energy.
Example:
235U + n --> fission + 2 or 3 n + 200 MeV

This is 50,000,000 times more energy 3.2 x 10-11 j

1MeV (million electron volts) = 1.609 x 10-13 j
Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
Mass defect:
“The sum of the masses of the neutron &
protons that comprise the nucleus exceeds
the mass of the atomic nucleus. This
difference in mass is called the mass defect”.
M = Z(mp+me)+(A-Z)mn - M(A,Z)
Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
The mass defect is converted to energy in a
nuclear reaction is given by Einstein’s law.
“Matter and Energy”
Previous studies have taught us that “matter
and energy cannot be created nor destroyed

We now need to understand that Matter and

Energy are two forms of the same thing
Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
Matter can be changed into Energy
Einstein’s formula above tells us how the change occurs

In the equation above:

E = Energy
m = Mass
c = Speed of Light (Universal Constant
Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
E = mc2
The equation may be read as follows:
Energy (E) is equal to Mass (m) multiplied
by the Speed of Light (c) squared
This tells us that a small amount of mass can
be converted into a very large amount of
energy because the speed of light (c) is an
extremely large number
Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
The energy associated with the mass defect
is known as the binding energy (BE) of the
nucleus.
It acts as a glue which binds the proton and
neutron together in the nucleus.
Nuclear stability and Binding Energy
. The energy equivalent of 1gm of mass is
ΔE= Δmc2
=1x10-3kgx(3x108m/s)2.
=9x1013j
“{1eV=1.6021x10-19j)=4.44x10-26kwh}”
Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
Similarly, the energy equivalent of 1 amu of
mass is
ΔE= Δmc2
=1.66x10-27kgx(3x108m/s)2.
=14.94x10-11j
=9.31x108eV
=931Mev
 Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
the binding energy per nucleon (i,e. Proton & Neutron)
determines the stability of the nucleus.
Example:
He nucleus : 20n1+21n1 2 He
4

Experimental Mass of He atom: 4.00387amu.

Mass of nucleus = 4.00387- 2x.00055=4.00277amu.
Calculated Mass = 2mp+2mn
=2x1.00759+2x1.00898
=4.03314amu.
Δm=mass defect= (Calculated mass – Experiment mass)
=4.0331- 4.00277=0.03037amu.
ΔE = 0.03037x931MeV=28.2MeV.
 Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
this the energy released when two protons and two
neutrons are bond together. If we want to back the
helium nuclei back into its constituents. We would
have to back this 28.2MeV to the nucleus.
The binding energy per nucleon is then:
BE/ nucleon=28.2/4=7.05MeV.
For deuterium it is =1.115MeV/nucleon
Higher the binding energy per nucleon higher is the
stability of the nucleus.
Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
The Binding energy curve is shown fig.-1
Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
The Binding energy curve is shown fig.-2
Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
BE curve shows most stable elements like iron,
cobalt nickel etc. Are in intermediate mass number.
If elements of low mass number are fused together,
it would lead to more stable elements.
The element of higher mass number are less stable
if they are fissioned. They would form elements of
less mass number. Which are more stable.
Nuclear stability and Binding Energy.
It is found that the nuclei of the even–even type( p
& n) are very stable.
Therefore
238 p=92, n=146 is quit stable and required high energy
92U
Neutrons for fission.

U 235 p=92, n=143 can be fission by low energy Neutrons.

92
Radioactive Decay & Half Life Time.
When radiation collides with a neutral atom (or molecule)
electron(s) can be knocked off the atom leaving a positively
charged species called an ion. This process is called ionisation.
Types of Radiation. There are Three Types of Radiation.
Alpha (ά) – a positively charged helium 4
isotope
2 He
we usually ignore the charge because it
0
involves electrons, not protons and
neutrons 1e
Beta (β) – an electron
Gamma (γ) – pure energy; called a ray
0
0 
rather than a particle
Radioactive Decay & Half Life Time.
Alpha particles are 'heavy' and slow moving. When they
collide with atoms they can knock off many electrons.
We say that alpha particles are strongly ionizing.

Beta particles are very 'light' and move fairly fast. They
are not as strongly ionizing as alpha particles as they
cannot knock electrons off atoms as easily.

Gamma rays have no mass so they cannot easily knock

electrons off atoms. We say that they are weakly
ionizing.
Radioactive Decay & Half Life Time.
When 'heavy' slow moving alpha particles hit a material
they knock electrons off many atoms of the material
thereby creating a lot of ions. This stops the alpha
particles penetrating the material. We say that alpha
particles are weakly penetrating.
When 'lighter' fast moving beta particles hit a material
not many electrons are removed from the material's
atoms. Beta particles are not stopped as easily by the
material as alpha particles so we refer to beta particles
as being moderately penetrating.
When gamma rays hit a material they hardly knock any
electrons off the atoms in the material. Gamma rays are
not stopped easily so we call them strongly penetrating.
Penetrating Ability
 Other Nuclear Particles
1
• Neutron 0 n
• Positron – a positive electron 0
1 e
•Proton – usually referred to as
hydrogen-1 1
1 H
 Radioactive Decay & Half Life Time.
. Measuring Radioactivity .
The radioactivity of a substance is measured by how many decays per unit time
occur. Two popular units of the activity are used: the curie (Ci), defined as 1 Ci
= 3.7 x 1010 decays/s

and the becquerel (Bq), defined as 1 Bq = 1 decay/s

It is found that, if a given radioactive substance at a certain time contains
N nuclei, then at a short time Δt later a certain number
Δ N have decayed which is given by

Δ N = - λ N Δ t,
where is called the decay constant. Note that has units of inverse time, or s
- 1. The decay rate, R , is defined as the number of decays per unit time:

…………………………………..
 Nuclear Fission.
Fission may be defined as the process of splitting
an atomic nucleus into fission fragments
The fission fragments are generally in the form of
smaller atomic nuclei and neutrons
Large amounts of energy are produced by the
fission process
There are 2 types of fission that exist:
1. Spontaneous Fission
2. Induced Fission
 Nuclear Fission.
Fissile nuclei are generally heavy atoms with
large numbers of nucleons
The nuclei of such heavy atoms are struck by
neutrons initiating the fission process
Fission occurs due to electrostatic repulsion
created by large numbers of protons within
the nuclei of heavy atoms
 Nuclear Fission.
Spontaneous Fission
• Some radioisotopes contain nuclei which are
highly unstable and decay spontaneously by
splitting into 2 smaller nuclei.
• Such spontaneous decays are accompanied
by the release of neutrons.
 Induced Fission

Nuclear fission can be induced by bombarding atoms

with neutrons.

The nuclei of the atoms then split into 2 equal parts.

Induced fission decays are also accompanied by the

release of neutrons.
 The Fission Process
A neutron travels at high speed towards a uranium-235
nucleus.

1 235
0 n 92 U
 The Fission Process
A neutron travels at high speed towards a uranium-235
nucleus.

1 235
0 n 92 U
 The Fission Process
A neutron travels at high speed towards a uranium-235
nucleus.

1 235
0 n 92 U
 The Fission Process
The neutron strikes the nucleus which then captures the
neutron.

1 235
0 n 92 U
 The Fission Process
The nucleus changes from being uranium-235 to
uranium-236 as it has captured a neutron.

236
92 U
 The Fission Process
The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.

It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

 The Fission Process
The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.

It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

 The Fission Process
The uranium-236 nucleus formed is very unstable.

It transforms into an elongated shape for a short time.

 The Fission Process
It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases
neutrons.

1
0 n
141
56 Ba

1
0 n
92
36 Kr
1
0 n
 The Fission Process
It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases
neutrons.
1
0 n
141
56 Ba

1
0 n

92
36 Kr
1
0 n
 The Fission Process
It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases
neutrons.
1
0 n
141
56 Ba

1
0 n

92
36 Kr
1
0 n
 The Fission Process
It then splits into 2 fission fragments and releases
neutrons. 1
0n
141
56 Ba

1
0 n

92
36 Kr
1
 Nuclear Fission Examples

235 1 141 92 1

92
U + 0
n 56
Ba + 36
Kr + 3 0
n
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
Nuclear Fission.
 Countries Generating Most Nuclear
Power
Country Total MW
USA 99,784
France 58,493
Japan 38,875
Germany 22,657
Russia 19,843
Canada 15,755
Ukraine 12,679
United Kingdom 11,720
Sweden 10,002
South Korea 8,170
 Radioactive Decay & Half Life Time.
• Fast Spectrum of fission neutrons 1-10 MeV, 2MeV is
typical
•
• Slow or thermal Slowed to thermal equilibrium
•
• 0.0253 eV at 20°
• C
•
• Epi-thermal
•
• anything in between
Radioactive Decay & Half Life Time.
Radioactive Decay & Half Life Time.
Radioactive Decay & Half Life Time.
 Atomic Structure.
………

……
……..
 Atomic Structure.
………

……
……..
 Atomic Structure.
………

……
……..
Basic Notation
 Uranium Basics
Natural uranium ore mined
– Usually found as U3O8
Contains a mixture of isotopes
U-238 is not fissionable
• makes up 99.3%
– U-235 is easily fissionable
• makes up 0.7%
 Nuclear Basics
• Nearly all reactor require enriched uranium
– Most require 3% to 5% U-235
• Some newer reactors can run on natural U
• Nuclear weapons require >90% U-235
 Enrichment Methods
• Four main methods have been used
– Gaseous diffusion
– Gas centrifuges
– Jet nozzle or aerodynamic separation
– Electromagnetic separation
• Laser and chemical methods also exist
– Under development; not commercially feasible
 Conversion
• Uranium ore (U3O8) must be converted to
UF6 before the enrichment process

• U3O8UO3 (through a series of steps)

• UO3+2H23UO2+2H2O (reduction)
• UO2+4HFUF4+2H2O (double replacement)
• UF4+F2+UF6 (synthesis)
 Gaseous Diffusion
• Method used by USEC
• Developed as part of Manhattan Project
• Relies on the rate of diffusion
– U-253 will diffuse more quickly than U-238
• Very small difference in mass – only 3 AMU
– Thousands of diffusions needed to obtain
significant amounts of U-235
• Plants are often arranged in cascades
Gaseous Diffusion
 Gaseous Diffusion
• Gaseous diffusion plants terribly inefficient
– Produces extensive heat
• Rely on CFCs – ozone issues
• USEC Plant released 55% of US CFCs in 2002
– Consumes huge amounts of electricity
– Require huge facilities
Gaseous Diffusion
 Gas Centrifuge
• Most common method around the world
• Developed by capture Austrian/German
scientists in Russia
– Scientists brought to US, Europe
• Much more efficient than diffusion
– Up to 50 times less energy than diffusion
– Significantly less heat generated
 Gas Centrifuge
• Gas fed into quickly
rotating cylinders (50k
to 70k rpm)
• U-238 move to sides
• U-235 remains in
center
• Isotopes can be
extracted at locations
• Cascades again
needed
Gas Centrifuge
 Electromagnetic Separation
• Developed by the Manhattan Project
– Enrich natural U and gas diffused enriched U
• Far too expensive and inefficient
– Facility closed shortly after war
• Iraq attempted in 1980s
– Only produced small amounts of 20% enriched
 Electromagnetic Separation
• Charged particles will curve in magnetic field
based on mass
– U-235 will follower a wider curve
• Uses UCl4 which is ionized thorough electron
bombardment
– U atoms will have a positive charge
Electromagnetic Separation
 Aerodynamic Separation
• Developed in Germany
– Used by the South Africans
• Gas forced along curved path
– U-238 out, U-235 in
• UF6 pressurized with He or H2
• Perhaps least economical among the four
– Large excess of heat and energy consumption
 Sources and Images
• http://www.ieer.org/reports/uranium/enrichment.pdf
• http://www.uic.com.au/nip33.htm
• http://www.hcc.mnscu.edu/programs/dept/chem/ab
omb/K25_Aerial.jpg
• http://www.nrc.gov/images/materials/fuel-cycle-
fac/enrichment-process.gif
• http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/image
s/gascentrifuge.jpg
• http://www.uic.com.au/graphics/centrfge.jpg
• http://www.childrenofthemanhattanproject.org/PH/O
R/ORP-149.jpg
Questions?
The End