Lecture 2

What Is Linguistics
2.1 Definition of linguistics
2.2 Branches of linguistics
2.3 Macrolinguistics
2.4 Important distinctions in linguistics
2.1 Definition
Linguistics is the scientific study of langua
ge.
study – investigation
scientific - exhaustiveness 穷尽性
consistency 一致性
economy 简洁性
objectivity 客观性
2.2 Branches of
linguistics
2.2.1 Phonetics 语音学
2.2.2 Phonology 音系学
2.2.3 Morphology 形态学
2.2.4 Syntax 句法学
2.2.5 Semantics 语义学
2.2.6 Pragmatics 语用学
2.2.7 Modern linguistics and traditional gram
mar
2.2.1 Phonetics 语音学
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.
Three different branches of phonetics:
1) Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学
2) Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学
3) Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学
2.2.2 Phonology 音系学
Phonology studies the sound system of langu
ages. The aim of phonology is to demonstr
ate the patterns of distinctive sounds fou
nd in a language, and to make as general st
atements as possible about the nature of
sound systems in the languages of the wor
ld. The object of study in phonology is pho
neme ( 音位 ).
2.2.3 Morphology 形态
学
Morphology studies the formation of
words, that is, how words are formed
from smaller units of meaning –
morphemes. Morphemes are the
minimal units of meaning. They can be
used to derive words and to give
grammatical information about a word.
Languages differ in their degree of dependence on morphol
ogical components.

Chinese: 男：我是学生。
女：我是学生。
男男：我们是学生。
女女：我们是学生。
English: Boy: I’m a student.
Girl: I’m a student.
Boys: We’re students.
Girls: We’re students.
French: Garçon: Je suis étudiant.
Fille: Je suis étudiante.
Garçons: Nous sommes étudiants.
Filles: Nous sommes étudiantes.
2.2.4 Syntax 句法学
Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences
from words. These rules specify word order, sentence
organization, and the relationship between word order, word
classes and other sentence elements.

Emma loaded the groceries into the car.

Emma loaded the car with groceries.

He didn’t come because of you.

2.2.5 Semantics 语义学
Semantics is the study of meaning. It’s
not only concerned with the meaning
of words, but also that of morphemes
and of sentences.
2.2.6 Pragmatics 语用
学
Pragmatics is the study of meaning in
context. It deals with specific
utterances in specific situations.
2.2.7 Modern linguistics
and traditional grammar
• Saussure, “Father of modern linguistics”, C
ourse in General Linguistics.
• Firstly, modern linguistics is descriptive w
hile traditional grammar is prescriptive.
• Secondly, modern linguistics regards the s
poken language as primary, not the written.
• Thirdly, modern linguistics does not force l
anguages into a Latin-based framework.
2.3 Macrolinguistics 宏观
语言学
2.3.1 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 -- linguistics and psych
ology
2.3.2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学 – language and society
2.3.3 Applied linguistics 应用语言学 - linguistics and langu
age teaching
Psycholinguistics
• Psycholinguistics studies the correlation between
linguistic behavior and the psychological processe
s thought to underlie that behavior: (a) the menta
l process that a person uses in producing and unde
rstanding language, and (b) how humans learn lang
uage.
• cognitive linguistics
• the study of language development in the child
•
Sociolinguistics
• Sociolinguistics studies all aspects of the r
elationship between language and society. I
t includes studies on the social functions o
f language and the social characteristics o
f its users.
• Language attitude before and after the ha
ndover of Hongkong
• Changes in the use of “ 小姐”
Applied linguistics
• In the broad sense, applied linguistics is concerne
d with the application of linguistic theories and fi
ndings to the clarification and solution of language
problems which have arisen in other areas of expe
rience. But the most well-developed branch of app
lied linguistics the teaching and learning of foreig
n languages, and sometimes the term is used in th
e narrow sense to refer to this field exclusively.
Some other applications
Literary stylistics 文学文体学
It deals with the variations characteristic of
literature as a genre and of the ‘style’ of in
dividual authors. This is where linguistics a
nd literature meets.
Anthropological
linguistics
• This is a branch that studies language variation and
use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs
of man, as investigated using the theories and meth
ods of anthropology.

• Did English and German diverge from a common anc

estral language? If they are related, how far back i
n time did they begin to differ?
Computational linguistics
• This is a branch in which computational tec
hniques and concepts are applied to linguist
ic and phonetic problems.
• speech synthesis, speech recognition, mach
ine translation, corpus linguistics, compute
r-mediated communication
2.4 Important distinctions in
linguistics
2.4.1 Speech and writing
2.4.2 Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描写式和规定式
2.4.3 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时和历时
2.4.4 langue vs. parole 语言和言语
2.4.5 Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用
2.4.6 Functionalism and formalism
功能主义与形式主义
Descriptive vs. prescriptive
grammars
They represent two different types of linguistic
study.
Descriptive---to describe the fact of linguistic
usage as they are, and not how they ought to be,
with reference to some real or imagined ideal
state.

Prescriptive---a term used to characterize any

approach which attempt to lay down rules of
correctness as to how language should be used.
Synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a
theoretic point in time: one describes a ‘state’ of
language, disregarding whatever changes might be
taking place.
Diachronic----languages are studied from point of
view of their historical development – for
example, the changes which have taken place
between Old and Modern English could be
described in phonological, grammatical and
semantic terms.
langue vs. parole
Langue--- the language system shared
by a community of speakers
Parole--- the concrete act of speaking
in actual situations by an individual
speaker.
Competence and performance
Competence---- a person’s knowledge of his language, th
e system of rules which he has mastered so that he is
able to produce and understand an indefinite number
of sentences, and to recognize grammatical mistakes
and ambiguities.
Performance---the actual realization of language knowle
dge, language seen as a set of specific utterances pro
duced by language speakers, as encountered in a corp
us.
D. H. Hymes: communicative competence
M. A. K. Halliday: Linguistic potential and actual linguisti
c behavior
Functionalism vs.
formalism
• Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to th
e study of the form of language in reference to t
heir social function in communication. It considers
the individual as a social being and investigates th
e way in which she/he acquires language and uses i
t in order to communicate with others in her or hi
s social environment.
• Representative: M. A. K. Halliday, Systemic functi
onal grammar
• Formalism or formal linguistics is the study
of the abstract forms of language and thei
r internal relations. It fixes on the forms
of languages as evidence of the universals
without considering how these forms funct
ion in communication and the ways of social
life in different communities.
• Representative: Noam Chomsky, Transform
ational-generative grammar
Exercises
Questions to discuss:
1. In what way do langue, competence and linguistic potenti
al agree? In what way do they differ? And their counter
parts?
2. What are the differences between the traditional study
of language and modern linguistics?
Terms to define:
Competence ， performance ， langue ， parole ， descripti
ve grammar, prescriptive grammar, diachronic linguistics
, synchronic linguistics, functionalism, formalism