Macromolecules

1
 Organic Compounds

• Compounds that contain

CARBON are called organic.

• Macromolecules are large

organic molecules.

2
 Biological Macromolecules
• Large organic molecules produced
by living organisms.

• Also called POLYMERS.

• Made up of smaller “building

blocks” called MONOMERS.

3
 Biological Macromolecules
Most biologically important
macromolecules molecules fall into the
following groups:

1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

4
 How Are Macromolecules
Formed?
Dehydration Synthesis

• Also called “condensation reaction”

• Forms polymers by combining
monomers by “removing water”.

HO H HO H

H2O

HO H
5
How are Macromolecules separated
or digested?
Hydrolysis
• Separates monomers by “adding water”

HO H

H2O

HO H HO H

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Carbohydrates

7
 Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are the most

abundant bio-molecules on Earth.

• Certain carbohydrates are a dietary

staple in most parts of the world

• Basic building block is a

monosaccharide

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 Carbohydrates

• Energy containing molecules

• Some provide structure

• Examples:
A. monosaccharide
Small carbohydrates
B. disaccharide
C. polysaccharide Large carbohydrates

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Small Carbohydrates (Monosaccharide)
1. Monosaccharides:
Chemical Structure:
o Monosaccharides are ‘simple sugars’.
o Monosaccharides are the common base unit of all
carbohydrate molecules (‘Mono’ means ‘One’).
o All common monosaccharides have names ending with the
suffix ‘ose’.
Characteristics:
o Soluble in water.
o Sweetness varies (with individual monosaccharide).
Small Carbohydrates (Monosaccharide) Cont.

 Examples:
i. Fructose ("Fruit Sugar")
o Main sources are many kinds of fruits, as
well as honey.

ii.Glucose
o Glucose is the form of sugar that is used by
the body for energy.

iii.Galactose
o Present in mammals' milk .
 Small Carbohydrates
2. Disaccharides:
Chemical Structure:
• Disaccharides consist of (exactly) TWO (2)
monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic linkage
Remember: "Di“ = "Two (2)"
Characteristics:
• Soluble in water
• Must be broken-down into monosaccharides before they can
be absorbed into the body
 Small Carbohydrates (Disaccharides)
i. Sucrose

o Sucrose is a typical example of disaccharide and consists of

the six-carbon sugars D-glucose and D-fructose.

o Present in sugar cane, and in some other fruits and

vegetables.
 Small Carbohydrates (Disaccharides)

ii. Lactose
o Chemically, Lactose = Glucose + Galactose.
o Present in mammals' milk, hence associated with diary
products.

iii. Maltose
o Chemically, one Maltose molecule consists of two Glucose
molecules attached together.
o Present in cereals (e.g. barley); also known as "Malt Sugar"
Large Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides
3. Polysaccharides:
• Polysaccharides consist of repeating units of mono-
saccharide joined together by glycosidic linkages.

• They may contain many branches.

• Polysaccharides serve as either structural

components (cellulose, chitin) or energy storage
(starch, glycogen) molecules.
 Large Carbohydrates

Polysaccharide: many sugar units

Examples: starch (bread, potatoes)
glycogen (beef muscle)
cellulose (lettuce, corn)

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 Storage polysaccharides
1. Starch:

• Plants store glucose as the polysaccharide starch. The

cereal grains (wheat, rice, corn, oats, barley) as well as
tubers such as potatoes are rich in starch.

• Starch is a mixture of linear and branched polymer of

glucose

glucose glucose glucose glucose

Starch

glucose glucose glucose glucose

 Structural polysaccharides
2. Cellulose:
• Cellulose is a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of
several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4) linked D-
glucose units.

• Cellulose is the structural component of cell wall of green

plants.
 Structural polysaccharides
3. Chitin:
• Chitin is a polysaccharide consisting of is a long-chain of
glucose derivative, N-acetylglucosamine.

• Chitin is the structural component of exoskeleton of

crustaceans.
 Carbohydrates
Important Polysaccharides
Starch and Glycogen:
• Starch is energy storage molecule in plants
• Glycogen is energy storage molecule in animals.
• Starch and glycogen can be digested by animals.
Cellulose:
• Different bond formed than starch
• Structural component in plants
Chitin
• Partly derived from non-sugars (nitrogen)
• Composes exoskeletons of insects

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Lipids

21
 Lipids
• Building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol.

• Energy storage molecules “stores the most

energy”

• Not soluble in water but soluble in

hydrophobic solvents.

• Examples: 1. Fats
2. Phospholipids
3. Oils
4. Waxes
5. Steroid hormones

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 LIPID(S)
Storage lipids

─ The fats and oils are stored forms of energy in

living organisms (humans, plants, animals etc).

─ Chemically, both fats and oils are triglycerides

but fats are solids at room temperature whereas
oils are liquid.

─ Triacylglycerides are stored as oils in the

seeds
 LIPID(S)
─ In some animals, triacylglycerols are stored
under the skin serve not only as energy stores
but as insulation against low temperatures
(e.g. seals, walruses, penguins)
 Lipids
Triglycerides:
composed of 1 glycerol and 3
fatty acids.
H O
H-C----O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
O
H-C----O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
O fatty acids
H-C----O C-CH -CH -CH -CH
2 2 2

glycerol
 Fatty Acids
There are two kinds of fatty acids you may see these on food labels:

1.Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds; saturated

with hydrogen, (bad)

2.Unsaturated fatty acids: double bonds (good)

O
saturated C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3

O
unsaturated
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH

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27
 LIPID(S)
Saturated Fatty Acids
Harmful Effects
Major risk factor for heart attacks and strokes.

Diets high in saturated fatty acids increase the

production of acetate fragments in the body,
which in turn leads to an increase in the
production of bad cholesterol or Low-density
lipoprotein (LDL).

When consumed, saturated fats tend to clump

together and form deposits in the body, along with
protein and cholesterol.
 LIPID(S)
Saturated Fatty Acids
Harmful Effects
They get lodged in blood cells and organs, leading
to many health problems, including obesity, heart
diseases, and cancers of the breast and colon.

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Benefits:
The unsaturated fatty acids increase the levels of
good cholesterol or High-density lipoprotein
(HDL) by taking the LDL to the liver to be broken
down and removed from the body.
 LIPID(S)
Waxes
– The shiny leaves of holly, rhododendrons, poison ivy,
and many tropical plants are coated with a thick layer
of waxes, which prevents excessive evaporation of water
and protects against parasites.

– Birds, particularly waterfowl, secrete waxes from their

preen glands to keep their feathers water-repellent

– Biological waxes find a variety of applications in the

pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and other industries

• Lanolin (from lamb's wool), beeswax, carnauba wax (from

a Brazilian palm tree) are widely used in the manufacture
of lotions, ointments, and polishes.
 LIPID(S)

A honeycomb constructed Leaves of holly plant

of bees wax is firm at 25 °C
and completely impervious
to water.

Leaves of rhododendron