LIDAR

LIGHT DETECTION AND RANGING

Presented By:
Jayant Modi
Roll- 05EC77
Agenda

 Remote sensing systems

 Digital Elevation Models
 LiDAR Laser and scanning system
 LiDAR System Parameters
 LiDAR Returns
 LiDAR laser location
 Extraction of bare earth terrain
 LiDAR intensity
 Contours
 Applications of LiDAR
 Passive and Active Remote Sensing Systems

Passive remote sensing systems record electromagnetic energy that is

reflected (e.g., blue, green, red, and near-infrared light) or emitted (e.g.,
thermal infrared energy) from the surface of the Earth.

There are also active remote sensing systems that are not dependent on
the Sun’s electromagnetic energy or the thermal properties of the Earth.

Active remote sensors create their own electromagnetic energy that :-

1) Is transmitted from the sensor toward the terrain (and is largely

unaffected by the atmosphere),

2) Interacts with the terrain producing a backscatter of energy, and

3) Is recorded by the remote sensor’s receiver.

 Active Remote Sensing Systems

The most widely used active remote sensing systems include:

• active microwave (RADAR), based on the transmission of long-

wavelength microwaves (e.g., 3 – 25 cm) through the atmosphere and
then recording the amount of energy back-scattered from the terrain;

• LIDAR, which is based on the transmission of relatively short-

wavelength laser light (e.g., 600 to 1500 nm) and then recording the
amount of light back-scattered from the terrain; and

• SONAR, which is based on the transmission of sound waves through

a water column and then recording the amount of energy back-
scattered from the bottom or from objects within the water column.
 Digital Elevation Models

A digital elevation model (DEM) is defined as a file or database

containing elevation points over a contiguous area. DEMs may be
subdivided into:

• digital surface models (DSM) that contain elevation

information about all features in the landscape, such as
vegetation, buildings, and other structures; and

• digital terrain models (DTM) that contain elevation

information about the bare-Earth surface without the
influence of vegetation or man-made structures.
Sources of Digital Elevation Models

Four major technologies are used to obtain elevation information,

including:

• in situ surveying;

• photogrammetry ( stereophotogrammetry )

• Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR)

• Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR).

 Sources of Digital Elevation Models

•In situ surveying using conventional surveying (e.g., total station)

or GPS instruments can yield accurate x,y,z information.

•However, field surveys are time-consuming and expensive on a

per-point basis.

•Even with GPS, it is often difficult for surveyors to obtain points in

thick undergrowth.

•Due to these obstacles, the density of x,y,z observations obtained

in an area is sometimes low.

•It then becomes necessary to interpolate between distant points

to produce a digital terrain model (DTM) of the area.
 Sources of Digital Elevation Models

• LIDAR offers an alternative to in situ field surveying and

photogrammetric mapping techniques for the collection of
elevation data.

• LIDAR technology can be used to provide elevation data that is

accurate, timely, and increasingly affordable in inhospitable
terrain.
 LIDAR - Brief History

•The first optical laser was developed in 1960 by Hughes Aircraft, Inc.

•Laser instruments were soon used to compute distance by measuring

the travel time of light from a laser transmitter to a target and then
back to a laser receiver.

•Early remote sensing LIDAR systems could only collect

measurements directly underneath the aircraft, creating a single
profile of elevation measurements across the landscape.

• The synergistic use of DGPS and inertial measurement units (IMUs)

on airborne LIDAR scanning systems has allowed the technology to
mature rapidly.

•LIDAR–derived horizontal and vertical accuracies and cost of operation

are now similar to that of photogrammetry.
 LIDAR Laser and Scanning System

The LIDAR instrument

consists of a system controller
and a transmitter and receiver.
As the aircraft moves forward
along the line-of-flight, a
scanning mirror directs pulses
of laser light across-track
perpendicular to the line-of-
flight.
 LIDAR Laser and Scanning System
LIDAR systems used for topographic mapping use eye-safe
near-infrared laser light in the region from 1040 to 1060 nm.

Blue-green lasers centered at approximately 532 nm are used

for bathymetric mapping due to their water penetration
capability.

LIDAR data can be collected at night if necessary because it is

an active system, not dependent on passive solar illumination.
 Pulses of light are produced
by a laser
 When the light pulse
encounters dust, fog, clouds
and/or molecules, scattering
occurs in all directions
 Some of the scattered light is
redirected back towards the
ground
 Where it is gathered by a
telescope, electronically
detected and digitized.
 The time that it takes to
travel from the laser to the
cloud, dust, or molecules and
back to the telescope can be
converted into a distance
using the speed of light
 LIDAR Laser and Scanning System

LIDAR systems can emit pulses at rates >100,000 pulses per second
referred to as pulse repetition frequency. A pulse of laser light travels at c,
the speed of light (3 x 108 m s-1). LIDAR technology is based on the accurate
measurement of the laser pulse travel time from the transmitter to the
target and back to the receiver. The traveling time of a pulse of light, t, is:
R
t2
c
where R is the range (distance) between the LIDAR sensor and the object.
The range, R can be determined by rearranging the equation:
1
R  tc
2
LIDAR Laser and Scanning System
Properties of LIDAR as a remote sensing tool

Advantages Disadvantages
 Good height and time  Affected by cloud (light
resolution can’t get through)
 Backscattered signals  Background light is a
problem in daytime
readily interpreted
 Systems to observe the
 May be mounted on stratosphere tend to be
trailers or aircraft for large (and expensive)
mobile operation  Precise alignment must
be maintained
 LIDAR Laser and Scanning System
The range measurement process results in the collection of elevation data
points (commonly referred to as mass points) arranged systematically in
time across the flight line. The example displays mass points associated
with the ground, several power lines, a pole, and tree canopy.
 LIDAR System Parameters

The laser footprint is approximately circular

on the ground and varies with the scan angle
and the topography encountered. The
diameter of the instantaneous laser footprint
(Fpinst) on the ground is computed by

h
Fpinst  g
cos q inst 
2

h= altitude of the aircraft AGL

qinst = instantaneous scan angle under

investigation

g = divergence of the laser beam

 LIDAR System Parameters

The across-track swath width (sw) is given by:

q
sw  2h tan
2
where q is the scan angle
 LIDAR System Parameters
The point spacing across-track (pspacing) is dependent
upon the pulse repetition frequency (PRF), the
altitude of the aircraft (h) AGL, the instantaneous
angular scanning speed (ainst) in radians per second,
and the instantaneous scan angle (qinst):

h ainst
Pspacing  
cos2 qinst  PRF
•Actual sampling densities for an area also depend on
the forward speed of the aircraft.

•These higher densities are typically achieved using

multiple overlapping flightlines to cover the study
area. The observed ground returns are almost always
less than the number of emitted pulses.
LIDAR System Parameters
 LIDAR Laser and Scanning
System
The maximum scan angle can be
adjusted to meet the needs of a
data-collection mission. The greater
the scan angle , the more vegetation
that will have to be penetrated to
receive a pulse from the ground
assuming a uniform canopy.
 LIDAR Laser and Scanning System

LIDAR data may be used to

prepare digital terrain (DTM)
or digital surface models
(DSM) such as the one shown
which was used to identify the
optimum location for a new
railroad line near Aiken, SC.
 LIDAR Laser and Scanning System
LIDAR remote sensing avoids the problems of aerial triangulation
and orthorectification because each LIDAR posting is individually
georeferenced. However, it takes substantial processing to turn
the laser range information into georeferenced masspoints.

Some of the most important variables used in the processing

include:
• x,y,z location of laser in 3-dimensional space at the time of the
laser pulse - Differential GPS
• attitude (roll, pitch, and heading) of the laser at the time of the
laser pulse – Inertial Measurement Unit
• scan angle of the LIDAR at the time of the laser pulse;
• effect of atmospheric refraction on the speed of light;
• laser pulse travel time from the LIDAR instrument to the target
(ground) and back.
 LIDAR Laser Location

It is important to know the exact location of the LIDAR laser at all times
during data collection. This is accomplished using Differential Global
Positioning System (DGPS) technology. DGPS is based on the use of
two GPS receivers that simultaneously record positional
information.

1) A terrestrial GPS base station is located at an accurately surveyed

location with well-documented x, y, and z-coordinates. The
terrestrial base station records its GPS position for the duration of
the LIDAR data collection mission.

2) A second GPS receiver is located on the aircraft and records the

LIDAR antenna position at all times during data collection.
 LIDAR Laser Location

After the LIDAR data are collected, the data from both
GPS units (one on the ground and one in the aircraft)
are post-processed along with the known location of
the base station antenna. This process determines the
exact location of the aircraft’s antenna for the entire
flight. The accuracy of the aircraft position is typically <
5 to 10 cm, and is output in units of latitude, longitude,
and ellipsoidal height .
 LIDAR Antenna Attitude (Orientation)
•It is necessary to have accurate LIDAR antenna orientation information
(roll, pitch, and heading) at all times during data collection.

•This is measured by an inertial measurement

unit (IMU). The IMU uses roll, pitch, and yaw
gyroscopes and accelerometers to measure the
orientation of the LIDAR antenna at the exact
moment every pulse is transmitted and
received.
•After the LIDAR data are collected, data from the IMU is post-processed
along with the GPS-derived antenna position data to output a file
indicating the trajectory of the aircraft and the laser antenna at all times
during the LIDAR mission.

•The output file documents the position of the aircraft (latitude,

longitude, and ellipsoidal height) and sensor orientation (roll, pitch, and
heading), indexed by GPS time.
LIDAR Laser and Scanning System
 LIDAR Post-Processing of Multiple Returns

Thus far we have collected GPS data, IMU data, and sent and received
laser pulses. How are these data turned into digital elevation values at
specific x,y and z locations on the surface of the Earth?

This is accomplished through LIDAR post-processing which takes place

after the aircraft has landed.

Post-processing software is used to associate

set of latitude,
1) LIDAR antenna x,y,z position longitude, and
altitude (x,y,z)
2) antenna roll, pitch, and yaw orientation, and coordinates for
each LIDAR
3) LIDAR range (distance) information return.
 LIDAR Returns
A pulse of laser energy exiting the transmitter is
directed toward the terrain at a certain angle ( scan
angle) by the rotating mirror. Depending upon the
altitude of the LIDAR instrument AGL and the angle at
which the pulse is sent, each pulse illuminates a near-
circular area on the ground called the instantaneous
laser footprint.

This single pulse can generate one return or multiple

returns.
All of the energy within laser pulse A interacts with the
ground. One would assume that this would generate
only a single return.
However, if there are any materials whatsoever with
local relief within the instantaneous laser footprint (e.g.,
grass, small rocks, twigs), then there will be multiple
returns. Although not identical, the range (distance)
associated with the first and last returns will be very
similar.
LIDAR Return Logic
• 1st return
• n intermediate
returns
• Last return

If we wanted information
about the height of the
tree and its structural
characteristics then we
would be interested in
the 1st, 2nd, and last
return associated with
pulse B.
If we are only interested
in creating a bare-Earth
digital terrain model then
we would be interested
in the last return
associated with pulses A
and B.
 LIDAR Returns

Thus, each laser pulse transmitted from the aircraft can

yield multiple returns. This is referred to as multiple-
return LIDAR data. Post-processing the original data
results in several LIDAR files commonly referred to as:

• 1st return;
• possible intermediate returns;
• last return; and
• intensity.

The masspoints associated with each return file (e.g., 1st

return) are distributed throughout the landscape at
various densities depending upon the scan angle, the
number of pulses per second transmitted (e.g., 50,000
pps), aircraft speed, and the materials that the laser
pulses encountered.
Areas on the ground that do not yield any LIDAR-return
data are referred to as data voids.
Extraction of First, Intermediate, and/or Last
Return Digital Surface Models
We could click on the individual points in Figure a and obtain the
elevation.This is useful but does not reveal any elevation patterns in the
dataset. Therefore, it is common to use digital image processing
techniques to enhance our understanding of the masspoint dataset.

For example, the individual masspoints were processed using inverse

distance weighting (IDW) interpolation logic to create a raster (grid) of
elevation values every 0.25 x 0.25 m . The interpolation process creates a
digital surface model (DSM) that contains the elevation characteristics of
all the trees, shrubs, and man-made structures.

The brighter the pixel in the DSM, the greater the elevation. For example,
the buildings in Figure b are higher than the surrounding ground
therefore the buildings are brighter than the ground.
Extraction of First, Intermediate, and/or Last
Return Digital Surface Models
The LIDAR–derived IDW (inverse distance weighting) DSM can be made
even easier to interpret by applying a shaded-relief algorithm that
highlights the terrain as if it were illuminated by the Sun from a specific
direction (e.g., from the northwest). An example is presented in Figure c.
The original masspoints have been overlaid on the shaded-relief display
for illustrative purposes.
Extraction of Bare-Earth Digital Terrain Models

If the purpose of a LIDAR overflight is to collect data to create a digital

terrain model, the presence of vegetation (and other surface
obstructions) can be a nuisance. In areas covered by dense vegetation,
the majority of the LIDAR returns will be from the canopy, with only a few
pulses reaching the ground.

Hendrix (1999) found that up to 93% of LIDAR pulses never reached the
ground in mixed bottomland hardwoods near Aiken, SC. Separating
ground returns from vegetation canopy returns can be problematic.
Nevertheless, it can be done.
 Extraction of Bare-Earth Digital Terrain
Models

A bare-Earth digital terrain model (DTM) may be created by

systematically removing masspoints in the first, intermediate, and/or last
return LIDAR data that come from trees, shrubs, and even grass that
extend above the bare ground. This procedure is typically performed in
two steps:

1) semi-automatic masspoint filtering, and

2) manual masspoint editing.

First Return Last Return Bare Earth
 Semiautomatic Vegetation and
Man-made Structure Masspoint Filtering

Many landscapes contain dense vegetation. If the goal is to produce a

bare-Earth digital terrain model, then it is imperative to have a technique
that removes 90 – 98% of the above-ground vegetation masspoints.

This is done using a filtering algorithm that systematically passes through

the LIDAR dataset examining each masspoint and the elevation
characteristics associated with its n nearest-neighbors. The filter then
identifies those points that are
a) bare ground,
b) scrub-shrub,
c) trees, and/or
d) man-made structures.
Manual Vegetation and/or Man-made Structure
Masspoint Editing
Semiautomatic filtering rarely identifies all masspoints associated with shrubs,
trees, and/or man-made objects.

It is usually necessary for a well-trained analyst to visually examine the results of

applying the semiautomatic filter and then identify and set aside any above-
ground masspoints that were not detected semi-automatically.
 LIDAR Intensity
Most LIDAR systems provide an intensity file in addition to the multiple return data. The
recorded intensity is in most cases not the integration of the returned echo from all the
pulse returns, but just its maximum.

Several factors influence intensity :-

•the range to the target,
•angle of incidence
•atmospheric dispersion
•state of the AGC (automatic gain control) - The AGC circuit adjusts the return signal
gain in response to changes in target reflectance.
 Contours
Sometimes it is valuable to extract contours (lines of equal elevation)
from DSMs or DTMs to highlight subtle differences in the terrain and to
identify depressions..
Applications Of LIDAR

 Construction of Digital Terrain Model

 We can measure : -
 Clouds
 Aerosol (Back scatter Coefficient)
 Water vapour
 Minor constituents e.g. ozone, hydrocarbons
 Temperature
 Wind (by Doppler-shifting)
 Terrain Change Analysis
 Speed Gun
Changes in elevation and shape

1974: 110 ft 1949: 138 ft

2001: 83 ft

2001 1974
 Bibliography :-

 www.wikipidea.com
 www.howstuffworks.com
 http://www.geospatial-
solutions.com/geospatialsolutions/article/articleDet
ail.jsp?id=10275
 http://www.cnrhome.uidaho.edu/default.aspx?pid=9
0302
 http://lidar.cr.usgs.gov/
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LIDAR
 http://www.beg.utexas.edu/environqlty/remote_sen
sing/
 http://www.lidarus.com/forest.html
 www.google.com
ANY QUESTIONS ??