TECHNICAL WORKSHOP

FLOW ASSURANCE

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 FLOW ASSURANCE LIFECYCLE

THERMAL SOLIDS SYSTEM

SAMPLING OPERATING
HYDRAULIC FORMATION DESIGN
STRATEGIES
MODELING PARAMETERS

HYDRATES LINE BOUNDARIES

LAB MULTIPHASE DIAMETERS
ANALYSES FLOW
WAX STARTUP &
SLUGGING INSULATION SHUTDOWN

FLUID HEAT LOSS ASPHAL-

MODELING MODELING TENES CHEMICAL
INJECTION PIGGING

SCALE
TOPSIDES INTER-
EQUIPMENT VENTION

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 KEY CONSIDERATIONS

ECONOMICS ENHANCED RECOVERY HOST FACILITY

• CAPEX • Gas lift • Separator pressure
• OPEX • ESP • Capacity
• Risk • Multiphase pumps • Chemical injection
• Revenue • Water Injection • Operating practices
WELLS & MANIFOLD FLOWLINES & RISERS
• Configuration • Number of flowlines
• Depth • Diameter
• Chokes • Insulation
• Insulation • Flow rates
• Flow velocities • Length
SEA FLOOR
• Topography
• Temperature Profile
RESERVOIR FLUIDS • Currents
• Pressure • Composition
• Temperature • API & GOR
• Depth • Viscosity
• Drive Mechanism • Wax Content
• Productivity • Cloud and Pour Points ‹#›

• Reserves • Asphaltenes
• Water Salinity
 FLOW ASSURANCE - DEFINITION

Broad aspects of Flow Assurance:

• Thermal-hydraulic design of multiphase production/transport
systems
• The prediction and control of potential solids
• Remediation of flow blockages or restrictions should they
occur
• How the production system will operate during all modes
(startup, steady state, shutdown, rate change, etc.) throughout
the operating life

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 FLOW ASSURANCE AND DEEPWATER

Why flow assurance is particularly important for deepwater

developments:
• Cold ambient seawater temperatures
• Potential high pressures
• Long distance tie-backs
• Tall risers
• Complex subsea systems
• High cost of intervention

This is such a high risk that DTU’s are becoming popular for
deepwater (e.g. Kikeh). What are the advantages of a DTU?

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 FLOW ASSURANCE – FACILITIES IMPACTS

Causes of one offshore operator’s production system downtime:

• Pumps 23%
• Scale 20%
• Corrosion 15%
• Sand 10%
• Paraffin 10%
• Hydrates 2%
• Asphaltenes <1%
• Separation 10%
• Other 10%

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 FLOW ASSURANCE – DESIGN PROCESS
ESTABLISH DESIGN BASIS INTERFACE WITH
Reservoir Behavior Fluid Behavior Flowline Host Facilities MECHANICAL DESIGN
as f(t) PVT Characterization Routing Separator Pres.
Productivity Index Hydrates Bathymetry Acceptable Arrival Flowlines, Pipelines, & Risers
Production Profiles Wax Seawater Temp. Subsea Equipment
Pres. vs. Depletion Asphaltenes Temp. Umbilicals
Temperature Wellbores

OPERATING ASSESS OTHER

FLOW SYSTEM THERMAL-HYDRAULIC DESIGN AND FLUID STRATEGIES INTERFACES
BEHAVIOR
Procedures Reservoir
ASSESS FLUID Production Operations
Valve Sequences
HYDRAULIC DESIGN THERMAL DESIGN PHASE Pump Sequences
BEHAVIOR Chemical Injection
Rates
Hydrates Activity Durations
Model Model Model Model Wax
Wells Flowlines Wells Flowlines Asphaltenes
Scale
Reservoir, Flow
Prediction No System, and Host Design
Control Compatible?
Select Tubing Select Tubing Remediation
and Flowline and HOST FACILITY
Diameters and Flowline
# of Flowlines Insulation REQUIREMENTS Yes
ASSESS
TRANSIENT
Processing Capabilities
THERMAL-
Processing Pres./Temps.
HYDRAULICS Metering ASSESS SYSTEM
Plateau and
Startup / Warmup Storage Volumes ECONOMICS
Shutdown / Cooldown Export Requirements
No EOL Conditions Yes CAPITAL COST
Turndown / Ramp-up PCS
Satisfied? Thermal-
Yes Depressurization Chemical Injection Pumps OPERATING COSTS
No
Hydraulics OK? Slugging Chemical Storage NET PRESENT VALUE
Flare Requirements
Utility & Emergency Power
Surge/Slug Volumes
Surge/Slug Control
Thermal- System
Hydraulics and No and Economics
No Yes
Fluid Behavior Optimum?
OK?
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Yes

DONE
 SAMPLING – WHY DO IT?

Samples of the reservoir fluids are generally needed to establish:

• PVT analysis
– GOR, API gravity, dew / bubble point curves, phase behavior
– Composition
• Flow Assurance Tests
– Viscosity, cloud point, pour point
– Asphaltene screening tests
– Chemical inhibitor tests
• Geochemistry
– SARA, PNA, Sulphur, TAN, other impurities
– Crude assay
• Water analysis

SARA – Saturated Hydrocarbons, Aromatics, Resins and Asphaltenes

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PNA – Poly Nuclear Aromatics
TAN – Total Acid Number
 SAMPLING TYPES (1)

• Downhole
– Preferred for wax and asphaltene evaluations
– Pressurized
• Surface/separator
– Risk of precipitation of solids in formation, tubing, and/or
surface equipment
– Larger volumes are more readily obtained

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SAMPLING TYPES (2)

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 PVT LAB ANALYSIS
• Laboratory analysis of gathered samples:
– Understand density, phase behavior, viscosity in the reservoir
and in the production system
• Measured as function of pressure as pressure decreases from initial
reservoir pressure to low pressure at reservoir temperature:
– Bubble/dew point pressure
– Formation volume factor
– Solution gas-oil ratio
– Isothermal compressibility
– Oil viscosity
• Measurements of the gas evolved at pressure below bubble point:
– Z factor
– Gas viscosity
• Additional measurements of:
– Separator and/or stock tank gas ‹#›

– Stock tank oil

– Compositions
 FLUID CHARACTERISATION (1)

Reservoir fluids are complex and have a large number of components

• It is not practical to analyse for all of the components
• From an EOS modeling standpoint, it is desirable to keep the number
of components small
• Standard composition analyses often stop at C7, C10, or C30
• Higher carbon numbers may be analyzed in terms of true boiling
fractions
• Components not volatile enough to be separated by GC carbon
number analysis make up the residue (plus fraction)
• For higher carbon numbers, critical parameters are not known

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 FLUID CHARACTERISATION (2)
Wellstream Fluid Composition
Recombination Summary
Basis of Recombination 539 scf separator gas at 14.73 psia and 60 °F/bbl separator liquid
Separator Gas Gravity 0.6164 (Air = 1.00)
Separator Liquid Density 0.7972 g/cc at 535 psia and 92 °F

Separator Molecular Specific Wellstream

Component Separator Gas
Liquid Weight Gravity Fluid
(Symbol / Name) (mole%) (mole%) (Water = 1.0) (mole %)
N2 Nitrogen 0.129 0.028 28.01 0.8094 0.072
CO2 Carbon Dioxide 0.375 0.103 44.01 0.8180 0.220
H2S Hydrogen Sulfide 0.000 0.000 34.08 0.8014 0.000
C1 Methane 92.166 12.872 16.04 0.3304 46.962
C2 Ethane 4.544 2.974 30.07 0.4743 3.649
C3 Propane 1.744 2.984 44.10 0.5070 2.451
iC4 i-Butane 0.264 0.900 58.12 0.5629 0.627
nC4 n-Butane 0.419 2.094 58.12 0.5840 1.374
iC5 i-Pentane 0.113 1.355 72.15 0.6244 0.821
nC5 n-Pentane 0.088 0.753 72.15 0.6311 0.467
C6 Hexanes 0.078 3.877 85.84 0.6770 2.244
C7 Heptanes 0.048 7.137 94.59 0.7394 4.089
C8 Octanes 0.016 6.788 106.92 0.7470 3.877
C9 Nonanes 0.005 7.044 118.38 0.7758 4.018
C10 Decanes 0.011 6.195 130.28 0.7967 3.537
C11 Undecanes 4.868 142.13 0.8103 2.775
C12 Dodecanes 4.221 154.00 0.8219 2.406
C13 Tridecanse 4.860 165.88 0.8320 2.771
C14 Tetradecanes 4.413 177.75 0.8408 2.516
C15 Pentadecanes 3.479 189.63 0.8486 1.983
C16 Hexadecanes 2.910 201.50 0.8556 1.659
C17 Heptadecanes 2.595 213.38 0.8618 1.479
C18 Octadecanes 2.549 225.26 0.8674 1.453
C19 Nonadecanes 2.214 237.13 0.8725 1.262
C20 Eicosanes 1.693 249.01 0.8771 0.965
C21 Heneicosanes 1.299 260.88 0.8814 0.741
C22 Docosanes 1.319 272.76 0.8853 0.752
C23 Tricosanes 1.037 284.63 0.8888 0.591
C24 Tetracosanes 0.918 296.51 0.8921 0.523
C25 Pentacosanes 0.773 308.38 0.8952 0.441
C26 Hexacosanes 0.668 320.26 0.8980 0.381
C27 Heptacosanes 0.567 332.14 0.9007 0.323 ‹#›
C28 Octacosanes 0.607 344.01 0.9032 0.346
C29 Nonacosanes 0.521 355.89 0.9055 0.297
C30+ Tricontanes Plus 3.383 683.30 0.9018 1.929
Total 100.00 100.00 100.000
Molecular Weight 17.85 150.00 93.17
 FLUID CHARACTERISATION (3)

Fluid Characterisation Process:

• Develop a set of pseudo-components to represent high carbon number compounds
• Determine the critical and other EOS parameters for these pseudo-components.
• Collect and review all relevant experimental data. These data may include:
– Constant mass expansion
– Constant volume depletion
– Differential liberation
– Multistage flashes
– Viscosity
– Compositional analysis
• Build experimental data into PVT simulation package (e.g. PVTSim)
• Obtain initial estimate of EOS characterization based on compositional analysis
and select number of pseudo-components
• In the PVT simulator, tune pseudo-component critical parameters, binary
interaction parameters, and other parameters to minimize error between
experimental data and EOS predicted results

Tuning EOS models to experimental PVT

data is more of an art than a science
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 FLUID MODELING – BLACK OIL (1)

API Gravity
• Measurement of the (stock tank) oil density
API = 141.5/SG – 131.5
Formation volume factor
• Measure of the change in oil volume as the oil moves from the
reservoir to the separator
Bo = Volume of oil at reservoir conditions per volume of stock
tank oil
Solution gas-oil ratio
• Amount of gas that evolves from the oil as the oil moves from
the reservoir to the separator
Rs = Volume of gas produced at surface at standard conditions
per volume of oil at stock tank conditions

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 FLUID MODELING – BLACK OIL (2)

• Fluid property correlations based on numerous reservoir fluid

studies
• Need to know at least the API gravity and the GOR
• Knowing additional data such as bubble point, formation
volume factor, density at reservoir conditions, viscosity, etc.
increases the accuracy
• Black Oil Model calculates various parameters as a function of
P&T
– Bubble point pressures
– Formation volume factor
– Densities
– Phase split
– Viscosities

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 FLUID MODELING – COMPOSITIONAL (1)

Cubic Equations
• Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK)

 aT 
P  V (V  b)(VM  b)  RT
 M M 

• Peng-Robinson (PR)

 aT 
P  V (V  b)  b(V  b) (VM  b)  RT
 M M M 

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 FLUID MODELING – COMPOSITIONAL (2)

• These equations allow calculation of:

– Density
– Phase behavior
– Enthalpy & entropy
For a given composition and temperature & pressure
• These equations do not calculate
– Viscosity
– Thermal conductivity
– Interfacial tension

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 FLUID MODELING – COMPOSITIONAL (3)

Input to equations of state

• Temperature
• Pressure
• Composition
• Critical and other properties of components
– Tc, Pc, Accentric factor ()
– Molecular weight
– Ideal gas heat capacities
– Liquid density
– Normal boiling point
• Binary interaction parameters

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 BLACK OIL MODEL VS. COMPOSITIONAL
MODELS

• Generally, compositional models are preferred, particularly for

gas-condensate systems and volatile oils

• Black oil modeling is appropriate when limited information is

available about the fluids

• Black oil models are appropriate for single-phase oil systems

(i.e. export pipelines)

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 TYPES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS (1)

10000
Two-Phase Envelopes

Gas-Condensate (HPHT reservoir)

8000
Pressure (psia)

6000

West Africa Crude 2

4000

West Africa Crude 1

2000

Gas-Condensate
Dry Gas

0
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Temperature (F) ‹#›
 TYPES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS (2)

Black oils
• Contains a wide variety of chemical components including
large, nonvolatile molecules
• The phase diagram covers a wide temperature range
• Critical point is significantly greater than the reservoir
temperature
• Generally have GOR of 2000 SCF/STB or less
• API gravity is 30 or lower

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 TYPES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS (3)

Volatile oils
• Contains fewer heavy molecules and more intermediates than
black oils
• The phase diagram covers a wide temperature range
• Critical point is somewhat greater than the reservoir
temperature but much lower than that of black oils
• Have high shrinkage and associated gas tends to be rich
• Generally have GORs between 2000 and 3300 SCF/STB
• API gravity is usually 40 or higher

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 TYPES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS (4)

Gas-Condensates (Retrograde gases)

• Contains fewer heavy molecules than oils
• The phase diagram is somewhat smaller than that of oils
• Critical point is less than the reservoir temperature
• GOR will change during the life of the reservoir
• Generally have GORs greater than 3300 SCF/STB
• API gravity of produced liquids is typically 40 to 60

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 TYPES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS (5)

Wet Gas
• Contains mostly smaller hydrocarbon molecules
• The cricondentherm is less than the reservoir temperature
• Separator conditions inside two-phase region
• Produced GOR will remain constant during life of the reservoir
• Generally have high GORs
• API gravity of produced liquids is typically 40 to 60

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FLOW REGIMES (1)

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FLOW REGIMES (2)

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 FLOW REGIMES (3)

Horizontal Flow

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 FLOW REGIMES (4)

Vertical Flow

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 MULTI-PHASE FLOW CONCEPTS (1)

Superficial Velocities
• Used by multiphase flow prediction methods
• Are the in-situ volumetric flow rate of the phase divided by the
total pipe cross-sectional area

Vsg = Superficial Gas Velocity

= (actual m3/sec of gas) / (pipe cross-sectional area, m2)

Vsl = Superficial Liquid Velocity

= (actual m3/sec of liquid) / (pipe cross-sectional area, m2)

Mixture Velocity
• The volumetric average velocity of the gas-liquid mixture
• Equal to the sum of the gas and liquid superficial velocities

Vm  Vsg Vsl
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 MULTI-PHASE FLOW CONCEPTS (2)

Slip and Liquid Holdup

• Liquid holdup is the volume fraction of the pipe that is filled
with liquid
• No slip between the gas and liquid – both phases would move
through the pipe at the same velocity
• Hlns = No-slip liquid holdup = Vsl / Vm
• Under most conditions, the liquid, which is more dense and
viscous, moves more slowly than the gas. When this occurs:
H l > H lns
• Under slip conditions,
– the actual gas velocity (Ug) > mixture velocity (Vm)
– the actual liquid velocity (Ul) < mixture velocity (Vm)
Vsg Vsl
Ug  Ul 
1  Hl Hl
• Dispersed bubble and annular flow have little slip ‹#›
 MULTI-PHASE FLOW CONCEPTS (3)

Gas Condensate Liquid Holdup Example

PIPESIM Plot Mar 17 2001

60000

50000
Total Liquid Holdup (bbl)

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Stock-tank Gas at Outlet (MMSCFD)
PIPESIM for Windows © Baker Jardine & Associates, London

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 MULTI-PHASE FLOW CONCEPTS (4)

• What is a good flow regime?

• Why?
• What factors promote this good flow regime?

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 MULTI-PHASE FLOW MODELING (1)

Mechanistic Models versus Multiphase Correlations

• Empirical correlations have been used for many years
– Based on measurements consisting mostly of low pressure,
small diameter data
– Extrapolations of the correlations to field conditions may
result in errors
– Examples: Beggs and Brill, Hagedorn-Brown, Duns and Ros
• Mechanistic models
– Developed based on experimental studies on the fundamental
mechanisms of multiphase flow
– Generally proven to extrapolate to field conditions better than
the correlations and thus typically are recommended
– Examples: OLGA-S, Ansari, Xiao
• Benchmarking
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– With field or experimental measurement data
– Between the models and correlations
 MULTI-PHASE FLOW MODELING (2)

Multiphase thermal-hydraulic modeling involves

• Predicting fluid properties and phase behavior
• Describing the geometry and boundary conditions
• Steady state simulation
• Transient simulation

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 MULTI-PHASE FLOW MODELING (3)

Steady state simulation (e.g. PIPESIM)

Pros
• User friendly
• Fast
• Straight forward results
• Case studies
• Broad design definition
Cons
• User friendly and fast
• Actual systems are dynamic
• Transients can have significant design impacts

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 MULTI-PHASE FLOW MODELING (4)

What can we determine using steady state analysis

• Tubing and line diameters
• Basic flow assurance operating strategies
• Identify need to pig for wax removal
• Identify need to sphere for liquid control
• Determine need for insulation
• Determine if produced fluids need to be fully inhibited for
hydrate control
• Assess slugging potential
• Identify cases for transient simulation

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 MULTI-PHASE FLOW MODELING (5)

Transient Simulation (e.g. OLGA)

• Transient simulation becomes more important for:
– Deepwater
– Long distance tie-backs
– Subsea manifolding
• Transient operations include:
– Startup
– Shutdown and cooldown
– Aborted startup
– Depressurization
– Pigging / sphering
– Slugging
– Rate change
• Interactions of the production system with the topside facilities ‹#›
 MULTI-PHASE FLOW MODELING (6)

• Transient Simulation Examples:

– Cooldown rates upon unplanned shutdown – can affect
insulation level
– Startup and warm-up times – impacts chemical injection
and procedures
– Turndown and ramp-up – used to evaluate operating
envelopes and size slugcatchers
– Check for severe riser slugging

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 PREDICTION, CONTROL AND REMEDIATION OF
SOLIDS
• Hydrates
• Paraffins or Waxes
• Asphaltenes
• Scales
• Other Solids

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HYDRATES

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 HYDRATE DEFINITION (1)

• Crystalline compounds of water and light hydrocarbon molecules

• Ice-like solid crystals
• Cages of water molecules surrounding hydrocarbon molecules
• Can form with methane, ethane, propane, isobutane,
n-butane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide
• Can form in gas, gas-condensate and black oil systems

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 HYDRATE DEFINITION (2)

• One cubic foot of hydrates contains approximately 178 SCF of

gas
• Can form blockages in flowlines, production tubing, pipelines and
topsides equipment
• Blockages can occur very rapidly
• Transient operations are very susceptible to hydrate blockages
• Formation temperatures are dependent upon the gas
composition. Richer gases will form hydrates at higher
temperatures and lower pressures
• Salts in produced water inhibit hydrate formation
• Alcohols and glycols are used to inhibit hydrate formation

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HYDRATES

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HYDRATES – EFFECT OF GAS COMPOSITION

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HYDRATES – EFFECT OF METHANOL

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HYDRATES – EFFECT OF SALT

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 HYDRATES – HOW THEY FORM

• Hydrates require five things to form:

– Light gas molecules
– Water
– Relatively low temperatures
– Relatively high pressures
– Mixing

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 HYDRATES – WHERE THEY FORM

Where and why do hydrates form?

• Jumpers
– Cold Restart
• Flowlines
– Most likely location
– Cold restart, insufficient inhibition
– Low spots where water accumulates
• Risers
– JT Cooling
• Annulus vent lines, gas lift lines, commissioning operations
• Wellbores
– Generally unlikely (typically warm except for long-term
shutdown)
– Cold restart
• Topsides
– Compressor recycle valves
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– Strainers
– Mesh pads
 HYDRATES – IMPACT

Hydrate Blockages:
• Cause lost production
• Difficult to remediate blockages
– May require subsea intervention or special equipment
topsides
– May be multiple blockages
• Significant time required to remediate blockages
• There are safety issues associated with remediation

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HYDRATE PREDICTION

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 HYDRATE MANAGEMENT

Control/Prevention Strategies
• Inhibitors (shift chemical equilibrium)
• Thermal management (maintain temperature above hydrate
formation conditions)
• Water removal
• Operate at pressures below hydrate formation conditions

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 HYDRATE BLOCKAGE REMEDIATION

Remediation techniques are similar to prevention techniques

• Depressurization
• Chemical treatment
• Thermal methods
• Mechanical methods

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 NO TOUCH STRATEGY

UNPLANNED SHUTDOWN TIMELINE

EVENTS NORMAL FLOW RATE CASE

ALARM & SHUTDOWN TREES, MANIFOLDS, & FLOWLINE & RISER HAVE COOLED
JUMPERS HAVE COOLED TO TO HYDRATE CONDITIONS
HYDRATE CONDITIONS (ASSUMES OPERATION AT 30,000
BPD AND 0% WATER CUT PRIOR TO WELLBORES
SHUTDOWN) COOL TO
HYDRATE
CONDITIONS

TIME IN HOURS
0 1 2 3 4 9 10 11 12 13 14 28 29 30

INJECT
METHANOL TO INJECT 12
THE TREES, IF CANNOT RESTART, THEN BBL OF
JUMPERS, & DEPRESSURIZE THE FLOWLINES METHANOL
MANIFOLDS AND RISERS INTO EACH
WELLBORE
DURATION: 1 TO DURATION: 3 TO 4 HRS.
2 HRS. DURATION: ‹#›
1.2 HRS.
ACTIONS
 COLD RESTART STRATEGY

COLD RESTART TIMELINE

HOT OIL CIRCULATION
EVENTS
FIRST WELL WARM
LONG-TERM SHUTDOWN.
SYSTEM AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE.
SECOND WELL WARM

PRODUCTION FLOWLINES & RISERS

ARE WARMED ABOVE HYDRATE THIRD WELL WARM
CONDITIONS (68 F)

FOURTH WELL WARM

TIME IN HOURS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

START HOT OIL CIRCULATION THROUGH

PRODUCTION FLOWLINES AND RISERS
INJECT STOP HOT OIL SWITCH SWITCH STOP
25,000 BPD, 140 F METHANOL CIRUCLATION. METHANOL METHANOL METHANOL
TO FIRST TO THIRD TO FOURTH INJECTION.
DURATION: 7 HRS. TREE. SWITCH WELL. WELL.
METHANOL TO
START SECOND START START
PRODUCING WELL. PRODUCING PRODUCING
FIRST WELL THIRD FOURTH
ACTIONS INTO START WELL. WELL. ‹#›
RETURN PRODUCING
FLOWLINE. SECOND WELL
INTO OTHER
FLOWLINE.
WAXES / PARAFINS

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 WAX DEFINITION (1)

• Wide range of
high molecular
weight paraffins
(saturated
hydrocarbons)
• Straight chain,
branched, and
cyclic paraffins
• Solidify from oil
primarily due to a
decrease in
temperature

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 WAX DEFINITION (2)

Cloud point or wax appearance temperature

• The temperature at which the first wax crystals form
• At the cloud point, only a small fraction of wax molecules
crystallize as the temperature continues to drop more crystallize
• Combine with thermal-hydraulic modeling to determine where
wax can deposit
• Cloud point is lowest at the bubble point
– Light molecules, which act as solvent for waxes, are at their
highest concentration in the oil at the bubble point
• As the pressure increases above the bubble point, the cloud point
increases

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 WAX DEFINITION (3)

5000
Wax Phase Diagram
Liquid Phase

4000
Liquid + Solid Phases
Bubble Point Curve
Pressure (psia)

3000

Liquid + Vapor Phases

2000
Liquid + Vapor + Solid Phases

Cloud Point Curve

1000

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Temperature (F)

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 WAX DEFINITION (4)

Wax deposition
• When the pipewall temperature drops below the cloud point, wax
can deposit on the pipewall
• The dead oil cloud point tends to correlate with the temperature
in the field where wax begins to deposit
• Most of wax does not deposit
• Relatively slow process
• Occurs during flowing conditions
• Very little deposition during shutdown
• Oil porosity 20 – 90% of deposit

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 WAX DEFINITION (5)

Pour Point
• The lowest temperature at which an oil can be poured under
gravity
• It is not the temperature at which flow dies in a flowing pipeline
• Below the pour point, wax crystals form a matrix structure or a
gel
• If a pipeline shuts down and cools below the pour point, a yield
force will be required to break the gel and start the fluids flowing

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 WAX DEFINITION (6)

Gel Strength (or yield stress)

• The force required to break the gel developed below the pour
point
• The thermal and flow history can affect the gel strength
• It determines the pumping pressure required to restart flow in a
line. Sometimes this will define the design pressure (e.g. Ruby).
• The gel strength will vary with the pipeline length

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 WAX DEFINITION (7)

Viscosity
• An important parameter for sizing pipelines
• Is strongly dependent upon the temperature
• Above the cloud point the viscosity of oil is only a function of
temperature – Newtonian behavior
• Below the cloud point, the wax crystals affect the viscosity, and
thus viscosity is a function of temperature and of shear rate –
non-Newtonian behavior

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 WAX DEFINITION (8)

Wax Content
• The weight percent of wax in an oil sample (depends upon test
procedure)
• It is not a predictive parameter
• High wax content oils (over 10%) are likely to be viscous and to
have restart problems
• Low wax content oils are less likely to have deposition and
viscosity problems
• Low wax content oils can still have severe to wax deposition
problems

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 WAX DEFINITION (9)

3.5
Wax Content as a Function of Temperature

2.5
Wax (weight %)

1.5

0.5
Cloud
Point

0
20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (F)

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 WAX DEFINITION (10)

Re-melt temperature
• The temperature at which a sample of solid wax melts
• Soft waxes have melting temperatures in the range of 50 - 60C
• Harder waxes can have melting temperatures as high as 90C
• Defines the temperature at which pipewalls need to be heated to
remove solid deposits

Dissolution temperature
• The temperature at which wax crystals dissolve in the bulk oil
• Typically greater than the cloud point
• It is less than re-melt temperature
• The dissolution temperature can be used for ensuring that all wax
is re-dissolved in the oil

‹#›
 WAX IMPACTS (1)

Three Impacts on Facilities and Operations:

• Deposition
• High Viscosities
• Gelling

‹#›
 WAX IMPACTS (2)

Deposition
• Wax can deposit on tubulars and pipewalls
– The build-up of wax reduces the internal diameter and
restricts flow
– The wax deposit increases the surface roughness of the
pipewall
– Total blockages of flowlines and pipelines are rare
– Stuck pig
• Wax can plug instrumentation lines

‹#›
 WAX IMPACTS (3)

High viscosities
• Below the cloud point, viscosities can increase significantly
• Wax crystals can form a slurry in the bulk oil
– The viscosity depends on the flow rate (or shear rate) – the
viscosity is higher at low shear rates
– At low flow rates the viscosity may be too high to maintain
flow

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 WAX IMPACTS (4)

Gelled oil
• If a pipeline is shutdown and cools below the pour point, a gel
structure will form
• An initial yield force must be applied to break the gel structure
and to start the fluids flowing

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 WAX MANAGEMENT (1)

Pigs
• Most commonly used method for removing wax deposits
• Pigging can be successful and cost effective if regularly
scheduled
• Pigs can become stuck in wax deposits when too much has
accumulated
• Pigs do not remove the entire wax deposit, but leave a smooth
layer
• The pig should be specifically designed for paraffin removal
• A wax deposition model can determine initial pigging frequencies
• Pigging frequencies should be optimized based upon field
observation
• A regularly scheduled pigging program should be initiated upon
commissioning, optimized based upon field experience, and
followed religiously!!!!
‹#›
WAX MANAGEMENT (2)

‹#›
 WAX MANAGEMENT (3)

Wireline Cutting
• Wireline cutting of wax deposits in wellbores is a common
practice
• Need to consider the frequency of wireline workovers and the
downtime
• For subsea wells, the cost may be prohibitive

TFL (Through Flowline Pigging)

• TFL pumps a cutting tool down the flowline and into the wellbore
to cut wax deposits.
• TFL is not yet a common practice
• It can remediate subsea flowlines and wellbores
• BP Pompano

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 WAX MANAGEMENT (4)

Thermal Management (1)

• Objective
– Maintain fluid temperature above cloud point
• Prevent/minimize deposition
• Prevent/minimize viscosity concerns
– Provide cooldown time to pour point
• Wellbore
– Passive insulation
• Vacuum insulated tubing
• Insulated packer fluid
– Active heating

‹#›
 WAX MANAGEMENT (5)

Thermal Management (2)

• Flowline
– Passive insulation
• Pipe-in-pipe
• Syntactic foam external insulation
• Buried pipe
• Insulated flexible
• Bundled flowlines in insulated carrier pipe
• Vacuum insulated pipeline
– Active heating
• Hot water circulation in bundle
• Electrically heated with insulation

‹#›
 WAX MANAGEMENT (6)

Paraffin Treating Chemicals (1)

• Paraffin inhibitors can reduce wax deposition rates
– Inhibitors cannot completely prevent wax deposition
– Can reduce deposition rate by a factor of 5
– Typically combined with pigging
– Inhibitors can create a soft deposit that is easily pigged off
– There is no universal wax inhibitor
– Significant OPEX

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 WAX MANAGEMENT (7)

Paraffin Treating Chemicals (2)

• Commercial inhibitors may be
– Wax crystal modifiers – co-crystallize with the wax to prevent
wax crystal from forming on the pipewall
– Dispersants – coat wax crystals to keep them from
agglomerating
– Surfactants – water wet the wax crystals so that the do not
adhere to each other or the pipe wall
– Combination of all three

‹#›
 WAX MANAGEMENT (8)

Example wax control guidelines

• Operate the well at sufficiently high production rates to avoid
deposition in the wellbore and tree (i.e. areas that cannot be
pigged)
• Use vacuum insulated tubing to maximize flowing wellhead
temperatures
• Remove wax from flowlines by pigging and pig frequently enough
to ensure that the pig does not stick
• Utilize insulation and chemicals to reduce pigging frequency
• Treat high pour point oils continuously (PPD or diluent)
• Displace flowlines with diesel or diluent during shutdown to
prevent high pour point oils from gelling

‹#›
 PIPELINE GELLING

• Pipeline sizing
– Pipelines are generally sized based upon maximum
throughput
– The maximum pressure drop may be at low flow rates
– Reduce the diameter, and thus increase the flow velocity to
have higher temperature profiles and lower viscosities
– For example, use two smaller pipelines rather than a single
larger line
• Chemical options
– Continuously inject pour point depressant
• Insulation
– Lower viscosities
– Longer to cool during a shutdown
• Dilution
‹#›
– Reduce viscosity and/or pour point by blending in diesel or
lighter oil (e.g. diluent)
ASPHALTENES

‹#›
 ASPHALTENES DEFINITION

• Defined by the ASTM D-3279-90 (IP143/90) test as a solid that

precipitates when an excess of n-heptane or n-pentane is added
to an oil
• High molecular weight, polynuclear aromatic, polar compounds
containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and some
heavy metals such as vanadium and nickel
• Do not have a single, unique structure or molecular weight
• Dark brown to black solids
• Do not melt
• Thermal methods such as insulation do not work to prevent or
remediate asphaltene deposition
• Combination of solids suspended by resins as micelles in the oil
and molecules dissolved in the oil

‹#›
 ASPHALTENES – HOW THEY FORM

• Asphaltenes can deposit due to a drop in pressure

• Gas lifting can cause asphaltene deposition, particularly if a rich
gas is used
• Asphaltenes can flocculate due to the mixing of different oils
• Asphaltenes are very soluble in aromatic compounds such as
xylene
• Low asphaltene content oils have a higher potential for
asphaltene deposition than high asphaltene content oils
• Asphaltene flocculation may be irreversible – recent lab work
show reversibility
• Asphaltenes can deposit in the formation, wellbore tubing,
flowlines, and topsides equipment
• If a rich gas is used for gas lift, some of the heavier ends of the
rich gas will dissolve into the liquid phase and decrease its
density. When the liquid density decreases, the resins become
more soluble in the liquid and separate from the asphaltenes. If
‹#›
enough resins separate from the micelles, then asphaltenes will
begin to precipitate.
 ASPHALTENES – IMPACTS

• Asphaltenes are polar compounds which can interact strongly

with water because of this interaction, flocculated asphaltenes
can cause emulsion problems. The first sign of an asphaltene
flocculation problem may be an emulsion problem showing up on
the topsides.
• Can cause blockage of instrument lines

‹#›
 ASPHALTENE MANAGEMENT

Pigging
• Pigs can be used to remove asphaltene deposits
• The pig should be specifically designed for solids removal
• Pigging should be performed regularly
• Must be combined with large quantity of aromatic solvent
Wireline Cutting
• May be prohibitive for subsea wells
Coiled Tubing
• Coiled tubing can be used to remove deposits in short flowlines
Thermal methods
• Asphaltene deposits do not melt – heat will not remove an asphaltene deposit
Asphaltene Inhibitors
• Asphaltene inhibitors have been developed to prevent asphaltene flocculation
• Added either continuously or through a squeeze treatment
• Not as much effort and testing has been put into asphaltene inhibition
Asphaltene Solvents
• Asphaltenes are very soluble in aromatic solvents, even at seabed temperatures
• Can be used to remediate wellbores or other equipment ‹#›
SCALE AND SALT

‹#›
 SCALE DEFINITION

• A deposit of inorganic mineral compounds from formation water

• Generally inorganic salts such as carbonates and sulfates of the
metals calcium, strontium and barium
• May also be the complex salts of iron such as sulfides, hydrous
oxides and carbonates
The major forms of oilfield scale can form:
• During production due to temperature and pressure changes
– calcium and magnesium carbonates
• Mixing two incompatible waters
– calcium, strontium, and barium sulfates

‹#›
 SCALE OPERATING PROBLEMS

• Scale formation and deposition in production facilities:

– Temperature and pressure changes
– Mixing of different waters
– Adding methanol or glycol to production stream
• Deposition can occur in the:
– Formation
– Wellbore
– Flowlines
– Process equipment
• Deposition can lead to flow restrictions
• Salt/scale can stabilise emulsions

‹#›
 SCALE MANAGEMENT

Scale can be managed by:

• Pre-treatment to remove scale formers in injection water
• Prevent deposition using scale inhibitors
• Allow scale to form and periodically remove it

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CALCIUM NAPTHENATES

‹#›
 CALCIUM NAPTHENATES – DEFINITION

• Solid deposit (often described as organometallic scale) that forms from a reaction
between calcium (also sodium and iron) in produced water and naphthenic and
fatty acids in oil
• A solid layer at the emulsion interface can form
• Not common, found in some West African and North Sea fields
• High TAN oils. TAN is an indicative measurement. This is very complex as there
is normally in excess of 1,500 organic acids present in a typical crude oil.
• Bicarbonate has a significant effect on the deposition on CaN
• Higher temperatures promote CaN deposition (typically greater than 70°C)
• Higher pressures promote CaN deposition. This is linked to the level of CO2
dissolved in the water (i.e. bicarbonate).
• Turbulence and mixing (as experienced in a separator) promotes deposition.

• Fatty Acids - monobasic acids

CH2 only containing C, H, O with
R alkyl radical attached to the
carboxyl group (CH3, C2H5
etc.)
H2C CH (CH2)n COOH • Naphthenic acid - Collective
term including all monobasic
carboxylic acids present in
H2C crude oil
CH2 ‹#›
– General formula: RCOOH
Cyclopentane acetic acid – where: R consists of
cyclopentane and
 CALCIUM NAPTHENATES – MANAGEMENT

There is no standard approach to the problem, but the following can help:
• Avoid high temperatures – stabilise the crude at temperatures below
70°C
• Avoid emulsions at high pressures – keep the emulsion in the water
continuous phase
• If formed treat with acid specific demulsifiers or acetic acid

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 EMULSIONS - DEFINITION

Emulsions are complex mixtures of immiscible liquids consisting

of a dispersed liquid in a continuous liquid phase
• Water-in-oil emulsions
– Most common in crude oil systems
– Exist in water cuts as high as 80%
• Oil-in-water emulsions

‹#›
 EMULSIONS – HOW THEY FORM

Criteria for emulsion formation

• Differences in solubility between the two liquid phases
– Oil and water are immiscible
• Intermediate agents having partial solubility in each phase
– Resins
– Asphaltenes
– Low molecular weight polar compounds
– Wax particulates
– Silicates
• Energy for mixing
– Pressure drops across chokes and valves
• Stable emulsions do not readily separate by gravity in a “few”
minutes
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 EMULSIONS – IMPACTS

• Potentially high viscosities and thus high pressure drops

– Impacts line size, pump requirements
• Emulsions must be separated in topsides processing
– Equipment, power, chemicals may be required

‹#›
 EMULSION VISCOSITY

• The presence of water droplets in the oil can significantly

increase the viscosity
– Emulsion viscosity can be 10 to 10,000 times that of the dry
oil
• Temperature sensitive Effect of Emulsified Water
• Non-Newtonian
• Droplet size Inversion Point
• Phase volume percent

Apparent Viscosity

0 Water Cut % 100

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 EMULSIONS – MANAGEMENT

• Demulsifier injection – remember this is residence time

specific!
• High temperatures
• Electrostatic coalesence

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SLUG CATCHERS

‹#›
 SLUG LOADS ON PIPING

FORCES GENERATED BY SLUGS

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