General

Biology II
Compare and Contrast:
Reproduction in Plants and
Animals
One characteristic of life is the
ability to reproduce.
Reproduction
 Reproduction (or procreation or breeding)
is the biological process by which new
individual organisms – "offspring" – are
produced from their "parents".

 Isa fundamental feature of all known life;

each individual organism exists as the
result of reproduction.
2 Types of Reproduction
 Asexual – a process by which organisms
create genetically similar or identical copies
of themselves without the contribution of
genetic material from another organism.

 Sexual - is a biological process that creates a

new ”offspring” by combining
the genetic material of two organisms in a
process that starts with meiosis, a specialized
type of cell division.
PLANTS
Asexual Reproduction in
Plants
Natural Vegetative
Propagation

 Runners/Stolons
are modified stems
that, unlike rhizomes, grow
from existing stems at or just
below the soil surface.
 Rhizomes
is a modified
underground stem
serving as an organ of
vegetative
reproduction; the
growing tips of the
rhizome can separate
as new plants,
e.g., polypody, iris, co
uch grass and nettles.
 Bulbs
As the name suggests,
bulbs are inflated parts of
the stem within which lie
the central shoots of new
plants. They are typically
underground and are
surrounded by plump and
layered leaves that
provide nutrients to the
new plant.
 Tubers
These structures
develop from either
the stem or the root.
Stem tubers grow
from rhizomes or
runners that swell from
storing nutrients while
root tubers
propagate from roots
that are modified to
store nutrients and
get too large and
produce a new plant.
 Corms
are enlarged,
bulb-like
underground stems.
These vegetative
structures store
nutrients in fleshy,
solid stem tissue and
are typically
surrounded
externally by papery
scale-like leaves.
 Suckers
Also known as root
sprouts, suckers are plant
stems that arise from
buds on the base of
parent plants stems or on
roots.
 Plantlets
are vegetative
structures that
develop on some
plant leaves. These
miniature, young
plants arise from
meristem tissue
located along leaf
margins. Upon
maturity, plantlets
develop roots and
drop from leaves.
Artificial Vegetative
Propagation

 Cutting
In this method one year old stem of root is cut
from a distance of 20 to 30 cm. and is buried in the
moist soil in natural position. After sometime, roots
develop from this cutting and it grows into a new
plant. This method is commonly used in rose and sugar
cane.
 Layering
In some plants like raspberries, the
stem can be bent and buried in the soils
around the plant. After some time,
adventitious roots develop off the stem.
This part of the stem is known as the
layer. The stem can then develop into a
new plant.
 Grafting
In this method of
vegetative
propagation the
stems of two
different plants are
joined together so as
to produce a new
plant containing the
characters of both
plants.
Sexual Reproduction in
Plants
• Pistil (female
reproductive • The anther is a sac-
part) comprises of like structure that
three parts- stigma, produces and
style, and ovary. stores pollen.
• Stigma is the top
most part of a
flower. • The filament
supports the
• The style is the long anther.
tube which
connects stigma to
the ovary.

 Sexual reproduction in plants takes place in flowers. The complete flower

consists of four parts: petals, sepals, stamen (male reproductive part) and
pistil/carpel (female reproductive part)
 The ovary contains a lot of ovules. It is the part of the plant where the seed
formation takes place.
 A flower may consist of either stamen or pistil or both. Based on this, a flower
can be either unisexual or bisexual. A bisexual flower is composed of all the
four parts mentioned above, e.g. Rose, China rose. Whereas, the plants like
papaya and cucumber produce only unisexual flowers.
ANIMALS
Asexual Reproduction

 Budding- new individuals arise

from outgrowths of existing ones.
 Fragmentation- breaking of the body into
pieces, some or all of which develop into
adults.
 Parthenogenesis - is the development of
a new individual from an unfertilized egg
Advantages of Sexual Reproduction
 An increase in variation in offspring,
providing an increase in the reproductive
success of parents in changing
environments

 An increase in the rate of adaptation

A shuffling of genes and the elimination of

harmful genes from a population.
Reproductive Cycles and Patterns
 Ovulation is the release of mature eggs at
the midpoint of a female cycle.
 Most animals exhibit reproductive cycles
related to changing seasons.
 Reproductive cycles are controlled by
hormones and environmental cues.
Fertilization depends on mechanisms that
bring together sperm and eggs of the same
species

 The mechanisms of fertilization, the union

of egg and sperm, play an important part
in sexual reproduction.
 In external fertilization, eggs shed by the
female are fertilized by sperm in the
external environment.
External Fertilization
 In internal fertilization, sperm are
deposited in or near the female
reproductive tract, and fertilization occurs
within the tract.
 Internal fertilization requires behavioral
interactions and compatible copulatory
organs.
 All fertilization requires critical timing, often
mediated by environmental cues,
pheromones, and/or courtship behavior.
 Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Number of One parent needed Two parents are

organisms involved required to mate
Cell division Cells divide by Fission, budding , Cells divide by Meiosis
or regeneration
Types Budding, vegetative Syngamy and
reproduction, fragmentation, conjugation
spore formation
Advantages Time Efficient; no need to search Variation, Unique.,
for mate, requires less energy organism is more
protected
Disadvantages No variation - if the parent has a Requires two
genetic disease, offspring does organisms, requires
too. more energy
Evolution There is very little chance of Sexual reproduction
variation with asexual leads to genetic
reproduction. Mutations variation in new
in DNAcan still occur but not generations of
nearly as frequently as in sexual offspring. This is
reproduction. fundamental to
evolution.
 Involvement of sex No formation or fusion of gametes Formation and
cells (sex cell) fusion of gametes
(sex cell) occurs
Found in Lower organisms Higher
invertebrates and
all vertebrates
Unit of reproduction May be whole parent body or a Gamete
bud or a fragment or a single
somatic cell
Time taken Asexual reproduction is Sexual
completed in a very short period reproduction can
of time. take several
months to
complete.

Number of offspring Two or more One or more