School of Applied

Sciences and Technology

Instrument Apprenticeship

ITA 379 Process Control

310305cB CLOSED LOOP CONTROL – PART B

 ITA 379 – PROCESS CONTROL
2

310305cB
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL – PART B

Objectives
1. Explain the control strategies for nonlinear processes.

ITA 379 – Process Control

3 Page 2

OBJECTIVE
ONE
CONTROL STRATEGIES
FOR
NONLINEAR
PROCESSES

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Linear Control Loops
4 Page 2

Under normal operating conditions (no load disturbances), a control loop

is linear if the transfer function is the same for all operating points.

+10% changes in CO
C
A
B
B
A

Figure 1 – Linear control loop step response

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Linear Control Loops
5 Page 2

Static Gain
The static gain of the plant transfer function ( K p ) of a control loop is
linear if it has the same static gain value for all operating points

+10% changes in CO
C
A
B
B
A

Figure 1 – Linear control loop step response

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Linear Control Loops
6 Page 3

Static Gain
To determine if the static gain is linear, you can calculate ( K p ) at several
points (at least the normal operating point, low and high) or plot the
response of a change in the CO as seen below.

Linear Response

Figure 2 – Linear control loop I/O graph

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Linear Control Loops
7 Page 3

Transfer Function
A process with a linear transfer function provides good control at any
operating point.
Tuning at a 30% load works as well at a 70% load.

Linear Response

Figure 2 – Linear control loop I/O graph

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Non - Linear Control Loops
8 Page 4

A nonlinear control loop responds differently to a step in the CO in

manual operation at different points.
In a nonlinear multi-capacity process, the process gain (K p ), first order
time constant ( t1 ) and dead time ( t D ) can vary.

+10% changes in CO
C A

B
B
A

Figure 3 – Nonlinear control loop step response

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Non - Linear Control Loops
9 Page 4

The slope of the line shows the static gain.

A curved line indicates that the static gain is not constant, so this control
loop is nonlinear.

Figure 4– Nonlinear control loop I/O graph

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Non - Linear Control Loops
10 Page 4

Tuning values are good for only one particular transfer function.
A nonlinear process has different transfer functions at different operating
points.

Figure 4– Nonlinear control loop I/O graph

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Non - Linear Control Loops
11 Page 4

For example, a control loop can be tuned to provide good control when
operating near 50% when the static gain is two.
However, this does not mean it provides the same control when operating
near 25% when the static gain is one.

Figure 4– Nonlinear control loop I/O graph

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Non - Linear Control Loops
12 Page 4

Figure 4– Nonlinear control loop I/O graph

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Control Loop Nonlinearity
13 Page 5

Figure 5 shows that the plant transfer function ( GP ) is the combination of

the transfer functions of the final control element ( GV ), process ( GN ) and
transmitter ( GT ).

Any of these components can cause nonlinearity in the control loop.

Figure 5– Control loop block diagram

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Final Control Element
14 Page 6

The final control element (FCE) is usually a control valve. The type of
control valve and the trim installed determines the inherent characteristics
of the valve, which can be
• quick opening
• linear
• equal percentage

Figure 6– Inherent Valve characteristics

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Final Control Element
15 Page 6

Inherent characteristics show that both the equal percentage and quick
opening control valves are nonlinear.

However, these characteristics change if the pressure drop across the valve is
not constant. This often happens when the valve is installed.

Figure 6– Inherent Valve characteristics

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Final Control Element
16 Page 6

Figure 7 shows how the characteristics of a linear and equal percentage

valve change as the pressure drop across the valve varies with the valve
opening.

Figure 7– Installed characteristics in linear and equal percentage valves

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Linear Process
17 Page 7-8

An example of a linear process is the

steam heat exchanger in Figure 8.

As long as the mass flow of the

product, the specific heat and the
steam enthalpy do not change, the
static gain is constant and the process
linear. Figure 8– Steam heat exchanger

Figure 9 shows the steam heat

exchanger I/O graph. The graph
assumes the inlet temperature is 50°

ITA 379 – Process Control Figure 9– Steam heat exchanger I/O graph
 Nonlinear Process
18 Page 9

An example of a nonlinear process is

the pH control in the first stage of a
waste feed process (Figure 10).

The basic (pH above seven) waste

feed is neutralized (pH at seven) as it
mixes with the acidic (pH below Figure 10– Nonlinear process
seven) reagent.

The process is nonlinear because the

amount of reagent required to change
the pH of the waste feed changes
drastically over its range. (Figure 11)

Figure 11– Titration curve

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Transmitter
19 Page 10

The electronics of a transmitter are linear,

which makes it a linear device, but with the
following exceptions.

• the sensing element may be non linear;

example, a thermocouple.

• the measured signal may be non linear in

relation to the controlled variable; example,
an orifice plate. A squared relationship
exists between the flow and the differential
pressure produced by the plate.

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Solutions for Nonlinearity
20 Page 10

A feedback control loop contains the controller, FCE, process and transmitter.

The combination of the FCE, process and transmitter, which make up the plant,
determines whether the control loop is linear or nonlinear.

All control loops have some nonlinearity. This can be a problem because a nonlinear
control loop that is tuned for good control at a particular setpoint (SP) may provide
unsatisfactory control at other setpoints.

310305a – Figure 5
ITA 379 – Process Control
 Solutions for Nonlinearity
21 Page 11

The temperature control loop in Figure

12 has a nonlinear static gain, but
always operates at an SP of 60%.

In this situation, load disturbances do

not affect the process transfer function.

The static gain of the process near the

setpoint (60%) is almost linear between
40% and 80%.

This does not result in a tuning issue.

Figure 12 – Nonlinear static gain

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Solutions for Nonlinearity
22 Page 11

If nonlinearity significantly affects the

performance of the control loop, the
following four solutions may correct
this problem.

1. Choose a control valve or control

valve trim that causes the control
loop to be more linear.
2. Detune the loop to prevent it from
becoming unstable.
3. Use a multipoint characterization to
linearize the loop.
Figure 12 – Nonlinear static gain
4. Use an adaptive control strategy.

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Control Valve Choice
23 Page 12

The process and the FCE are the sources of nonlinearity in a control loop.

If the process is nonlinear, it may be possible to pick a control valve trim with
characteristics that negate the nonlinearity of the process.

Figure 13 – Control valve characteristics selection

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Control Valve Choice
24 Page 12

In a linear process, the selected control valve trim should be linear to keep the
control loop linear.

However, if the mechanical components are not sized correctly, the installed
characteristics may be more like quick opening and cause the loop to become
nonlinear.

Figure 14 – Installed characteristics

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Control Valve Choice
25 Page 12

By changing the valve trim to an equal percentage trim, the nonlinearity in the
control loop may be corrected enough to achieve a relatively linear loop

Figure 15 – Valve trim Figure 14 – Installed characteristics

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Detune the Loop
26 Page 14

Tuning the loop for the normal

operating point of 50% may cause the
loop to become unstable at operating
points of 20% and 80%.

If the loop is tuned at an SP of 20%

where the static gain is the highest, it
becomes sluggish when operating at
its normal SP of 50%.

This may work depending on the

system.

Figure 16 – Nonlinear control loop I/O graph

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Multipoint Characterization
27 Page 14-15

A multipoint characterizer is a function block that can be inserted into a control loop to
linearize the loop.

A characterizer can be added into a smart control valve, the digital controller or digital
control system. The location does not affect functionality.

Figure 17 – Multipoint characterizer

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Multipoint Characterization
28 Page 15

In this example, the input to the characterizer (CO) is the controller PID algorithm
output.

The characterizer output (COx) is the controller output signal, which goes to the FCE.

To do this, the characterizer I/O graph should be a mirror image of the process I/O
graph.

Figure 17 – Multipoint characterizer

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Multipoint Characterization
29 Page 16

Step 1: Step the controller in manual and record the PV value.

Step 2: Determine the characterizer output for each input from the process data.

Step 3: Program the characterizer and confirm operation.

Table 1– Process I/O data

Figure 18 – Process I/O and characterizer data
ITA 379 – Process Control
 Multipoint Characterization
30 Page 16

An alternative method to program the

characterizer is to use the tabulated data
from the experimental determination of
the plants I/O characteristics from Table 1.
Figure 17 – Multipoint characterizer

Table 1– Process I/O data Table 2 – Characterizer Programing

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Controller Output Clamping
31 Page 17
60% Max

Multipoint characterizers are also used to

clamp controller outputs.

The installed characteristics of a ball or

butterfly valve usually result in no change
in the flow between 60 % and 100%
rotation/opening.

To correct this error, calibrate the control

valve so a 100% signal causes only 60%
valve rotation.

A second option is to use a characterizer

with a 100% input that results in a 60%
output.

Figure 19 – Control loop I/O graph

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Adaptive Gain Strategy
32 Page 18

Adaptive control is a control strategy that uses automatic means to change the type
and/or influence of control parameters to improve the performance of the control
system.

An adaptive control strategy can change the tuning parameters of the controller
automatically to provide good control at all setpoints.

This type of adaptive control is called gain scheduling.

Figure 20 shows a generic gain

scheduling implementation.

The gain scheduling control

strategy monitors the PV and
determines what tuning parameters
to send to the PID block.

ITA 379 – Process Control Figure 20 – Gain scheduling function block

 Adaptive Gain Strategy
33 Page 18 - 19

The gain scheduling control strategy in

Fig. 20 divides a plant I/O graph into
three regions.

 When the PV is below Limit 1,

use Region 1 tuning parameters.

 When the PV is above Limit 2, use

Region 3 tuning parameters. Figure 21 – Nonlinear I/O graph

 When the PV is between Limit 1

and Limit 2, use Region 2 tuning
parameters.

ITA 379 – Process Control Figure 20 – Gain scheduling function block

 Adaptive Gain Strategy
34 Page 20

Notch Controller:

An older type of gain scheduler called Lab 10 – Adaptive Control

a notch controller allowed for the use
of only two different proportional
gains.

The function block logic monitors the

PV.

The function block uses the PV data to

determine whether to send the notch
gain value or a value of 1 to the PID
function blocks adaptive gain input
(AG).

Figure 22 – Gain scheduling function block

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Adaptive Gain Strategy
35 Page 20 - 21

Notch Controller:
Kc
When the PV is below its lower break
Kc x Notch
point (LBP), the input to AG is 1. The Gain
proportional gain used by the
controller is KC Kc

When the PV is above its upper break

point (UBP), the input to AG is also 1.
Figure 23 – Nonlinear I/O graph
The proportional gain used by the
controller is KC

When the PV is between its LBP and

UBP, the input to AG is the value of
the notch gain. The proportional gain
used by the controller will be
K c �Notch Gain

Figure 22 – Gain scheduling function block

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Load Disturbance Nonlinearity
36 Page 22

Load disturbances can affect the process transfer function.

Load disturbances to the temperature control loop include:

1. changes in the steam heating The most significant disturbance is

value (enthalpy) changes in the oil flow rate, and
2. changes in the oil composition this must be compensated for.
that affect its specific heat
1.
3. changes in the oil inlet
temperature
4. changes in the oil flow rate
5. environmental changes such
as the ambient temperature, 4. 5.
2.
wind speed, rain and sunshine.
3.

Figure 24 – Steam Heat Exchanger

ITA 379 – Process Control
 Load Disturbance Nonlinearity
37 Page 22

For the steam heat exchanger in Figure 24, a SP change to the flow controller causes
a load disturbance to the temperature control loop.

This is a common form of load disturbance because control loops do not operate
independently, but are affected by other control loops.

A change in the product flow rate

has a direct effect on the static
gain of the temperature control
loop.

DOut DTout � h fg �
Kn = = =� �
DIn Dq ms �q C �
� mp p �

h fg - Steam latent energy

Q mp - Product mass flow

C p - Product specific heat

Figure 24 – Steam Heat Exchanger
ITA 379 – Process Control
 Load Disturbance Nonlinearity
38 Page 23

DOut DTout � h fg �
Kn = = =� �
DIn Dq ms �q mp Cp �
�
�

Given that ( h fg ) and ( Cp ) vary only

slightly, it is the change in the product
flow ( q mp ) that affects the static gain.
FLOW FLOW x 2
• Doubling the flow rate cuts the
static gain in half.
Figure 25 – Static gain versus throughput
• Halving the flow rate doubles the
static gain.

ITA 379 – Process Control Figure 24 – Steam Heat Exchanger

 Load Disturbance Solutions
39 Page 24

If a load disturbance significantly affects control loop performance, there are three
possible solutions.

1. Detune the loop to prevent it from

becoming unstable.
2. Select control valve trim or use a
multipoint characterization that
changes the control loop gain to
compensate for the disturbance.
3. Use an adaptive control strategy.

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Load Disturbance Solutions
40 Page 24

If a load disturbance significantly affects control loop performance, there are three
possible solutions.
Best to tune at the low throughput
1. Detune the loop to prevent it from where the static gain is the highest
becoming unstable. to prevent the loop from becoming
unstable.
2. Select control valve trim or use a
multipoint characterization that
changes the control loop gain to
compensate for the disturbance.
3. Use an adaptive control strategy.

ITA 379 – Process Control Figure 26 – Loop Gain and load disturbances
 Load Disturbance Solutions
41 Page 25

If a load disturbance significantly affects control loop performance, there are three
possible solutions.
Using an equal percentage valve
reduces changes in the control loop
1. Detune the loop to prevent it from gain due to load changes.
becoming unstable.
2. Select control valve trim or use a
multipoint characterization that
changes the control loop gain to
compensate for the disturbance. Figure 27 – Process and control valve gains
3. Use an adaptive control strategy.

ITA 379 – Process Control

 Adaptive Gain Control Strategy
42 Page 27

Adaptive Gain Method 1:

In this case the product flow rate can
be used by the adaptive control logic to
change the controller proportional gain
setting.

A load disturbance adaptive

gain control strategy measures Figure 29 – Steam Heat Exchanger
the load variable to determine
the value to be inputted into the TIC 101
AG parameter of the controller.

(FT 101)

(TT 101)
Figure 28 – Adaptive gain strategy No. 1
ITA 379 – Process Control
 Adaptive Gain Control Strategy
43 Page 29

Adaptive Gain Method 2:

In this case the product flow rate can

be used by the adaptive control logic to
change the controller tuning
parameters.
As was done in the first adaptive gain,
this strategy also monitors the load
variable (product flow). Figure 29 – Steam Heat Exchanger

TIC 101

(FT 101)

(TT 101)
Figure 30 – Gain scheduling function block
ITA 379 – Process Control
 Adaptive Gain Control Strategy
44 Page 29

Adaptive Gain Method 2:

Limits:
The value of product flow
where the tuning parameters
change
Tuning Parameters:
These are the tuning Figure 29 – Steam Heat Exchanger
parameters for the different
regions of product flow rate. TIC 101

Deadband:
This determines the band or
range of product flow where
the tuning parameters change.
Larger deadband causes the (FT 101)
tuning values to change slower (TT 101)
Figure 30 – Gain scheduling function block
ITA 379 – Process Control