PHYSICAL SCIENCE

STELLAR
EVOLUTION
An introduction to
the beginning of the
universe and the
formation of stars.
 The BigBang
The Origin of
the universe
is thought to
be from the
Big Bang,
which
occurred
~13.9 billion
years ago.
Since then,
the universe
has been
continually
expanding.
LIGHT ELEMENTS

Light Elements (LE) are generally regarded as those with

Atomic number (Z) less than 18 (Argon). It is an observed fact that
most of the matters in the universe are the three lightest elements:
hydrogen, helium, and lithium. These elements were present during the
initial formation of the universe, with the heavier elements being later
formed in massive stars.
BIGBANG THEORY
The Big Bang Theory is the leading explanation about how the universe
began. At its simplest, it says the universe as we know it started with a small
singularity, and then inflated over the next 13.8 billion years to the cosmos
that we know today.
LIGHT ELEMENTS and BIGBANG
During the formation of the universe some 14 billion years ago in the
so-called ‘Big Bang’, only the lightest elements were formed – hydrogen and
helium along with trace amounts of lithium and beryllium. As the cloud of cosmic
dust and gases from the Big Bang cooled, stars formed, and these then grouped
together to form galaxies. Accordingly, stars began to form around 400 million
years ago.
The other 86 elements found in nature were created in nuclear
reactions in these stars and in huge stellar explosions known as supernovae.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG
1. Planck Epoch or Planck Era: from zero to approximately 10-43 seconds
This is the closest that current physics can get to the absolute beginning of time, and very little can be
known about this period. General relativity proposes a gravitational singularity before this time
(although even that may break down due to quantum effects), and it is hypothesized that
the four fundamental forces (electromagnetism, weak nuclear force, strong nuclear force
and gravity) all have the same strength, and are possibly even unified into one fundamental
force, held together by a perfect symmetry which some have likened to a sharpened pencil standing
on its point (i.e. too symmetrical to last). At this point, the universe spans a region of only 10-
35 meters, and has a temperature of over 1032°C.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG

2. Grand Unification Epoch, from 10–43 seconds to 10–36 seconds

The force of gravity separates from the other fundamental forces
(which remain unified), and the earliest elementary particles (and
antiparticles) begin to be created.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG

3. Inflationary Epoch, from 10–36 seconds to 10–32 seconds

Triggered by the separation of the strong nuclear force, the universe undergoes an extremely
rapid exponential expansion, known as cosmic inflation. This is the linear dimensions of the early
universe increases during this period of a tiny fraction of a second by a factor of at least 1026
to around 10 centimeters (about the size of a grapefruit). The elementary particles remaining
from the Grand Unification Epoch hot, dense quark-gluon plasma, sometimes known as “quark
soup”) become distributed very thinly across the universe.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG

4. Electroweak Epoch, from 10–36 seconds to 10–12 seconds

As the strong nuclear force separates from the other two, particle interactions
create large numbers of exotic particles, including W and Z bosons and Higgs
bosons (the Higgs field slows particles down and confers mass on them, allowing
a universe made entirely out of radiation to support things that have mass).
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG

5. Quark Epoch, from 10–12 seconds to 10–6 seconds

Quarks, electrons and neutrinos form in large numbers as the universe cools off
to below 10 quadrillion degrees, and the four fundamental forces assume their
present forms. Quarks and antiquarks annihilate each other upon contact, but, in
a process known as baryogenesis, a surplus of quarks (about one for every
billion pairs) survives, which will ultimately combine to form matter.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG

6. Hadron Epoch, from 10–6 seconds to 1 second

The temperature of the universe cools to about a trillion degrees, cool enough to allow
quarks to combine to form hadrons (like protons and neutrons). Electrons colliding with
protons in the extreme conditions of the Hadron Epoch fuse to form neutrons and give off
massless neutrinos, which continue to travel freely through space today, at or near to the
speed of light. Some neutrons and neutrinos re-combine into new proton-electron pairs. The
only rules governing all this apparently random combining and re-combining are that the
overall charge and energy (including mass-energy) be conserved.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG

7. Nucleosynthesis, from 3 minutes to 20 minutes

The temperature of the universe falls to the point (about a billion degrees)
where atomic nuclei can begin to form as protons and neutrons combine through
nuclear fusion to form the nuclei of the simple elements of hydrogen, helium and
lithium. After about 20 minutes, the temperature and density of the universe
has fallen to the point where nuclear fusion cannot continue.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG

7. Photon Epoch (or Radiation Domination), from 3 minutes to 240,000 years

During this long period of gradual cooling, the universe is filled with plasma, a
hot, opaque soup of atomic nuclei and electrons. After most of the leptons and
antileptons had annihilated each other at the end of the Lepton Epoch, the
energy of the universe is dominated by photons, which continue to interact
frequently with the charged protons, electrons and nuclei.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG
8. Recombination/Decoupling, from 240,000 to 300,000 years
As the temperature of the universe falls to around 3,000 degrees (about the same heat as the surface of
the Sun) and its density also continues to fall, ionized hydrogen and helium atoms capture electrons (known
as “recombination”), thus neutralizing their electric charge. With the electrons now bound to atoms, the
universe finally becomes transparent to light, making this the earliest epoch observable today. It also
releases the photons in the universe which have up till this time been interacting with electrons and protons
in an opaque photon-baryon fluid (known as “decoupling”), and these photons (the same ones we see in
today’s cosmic background radiation) can now travel freely. By the end of this period, the universe
consists of a fog of about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium, with just traces of lithium.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG
9. Dark Age (or Dark Era), from 300,000 to 150 million years

The period after the formation of their first atoms and before the first stars is sometimes
referred to as the Dark Age. Although photons exist, the universe at this time is literally
dark, with no stars having formed to give off light. With only very diffuse matter
remaining, activity in the universe has tailed off dramatically; with very low energy levels
and very large time scales. Little of note happens during this period, and the universe is
dominated by mysterious “dark matter”.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG
10. Reionization, 150 million to 1 billion years

The first quasars form from gravitational collapse, and the intense radiation
they emit re-ionizes the surrounding universe, the second of two major phase
changes of hydrogen gas in the universe (the first being the Recombination
period). From this point on, most of the universe goes from being neutral back
to being composed of ionized plasma.
TIMELINE OF BIGBANG
11. Star and Galaxy Formation, 300 - 500 million years onwards
Gravity amplifies slight irregularities in the density of the primordial gas and
pockets of gas become more and more dense, even as the universe continues to
expand rapidly. These small, dense clouds of cosmic gas start to collapse under
their own gravity, becoming hot enough to trigger nuclear fusion reactions
between hydrogen atoms, creating the very first stars.
 Hertzsprung Russell
Diagram
The H-R diagram
shows the
relation between
temperature and
luminosity in
stars.

Main sequence
stars are found
along the main
branch that
extends from the
top left to the
bottom right of
the diagram.
 Birth of Stars
Nebula are clouds
of dust and gas.
Stellar nebula are
specifically the
beginnings of stars.
As they being to
accrete, the dust
and gas will
coalesce and
eventually form a
star.

The Eagle Nebula

(taken via the Hubble Telescope,
 Birth of
Stars
Stars form
through the
collapse of
nebula, after
which the gas
and dust
begin to
accrete and
coalesce.

The accretion
begins to
form a
protostar. Formation of a proto star from a
All stars have a life
Life Cycle of Stars
cycle that begins
with a stellar nebula,
but can lead to
different fates.
Sun-sized stars
evolve along the
main sequence, and
then become red
giants.
More massive stars
become red
supergiants and
eventually end in
supernova
explosions.
 SUMMARY
The Big Bang occurred ~13.9 billion
years ago and the universe has been
expanding ever since.
The Hertzsprung Russell diagram
describes the relation between
temperature and luminosity in stars.
Stellar nebula are clouds of gas and
dust that eventually form stars.
Stars form through the collapse of
stellar nebula and subsequent accretion.
The Life Cycle of Stars describes the
evolutionary paths for stars.
Nuclear Fusion
An introduction to the
hydrogen burning and the
Alpha Particle
 Subatomic
Particles

The subatomic
particles combine
to form an atom
Proton:
Positively
charged, one mass
unit, located in
nucleus
Neutron: Neutral,
one mass unit,
located in
 BASICS OF AN ATOMIC
NUCLEUS
An atom is defined by
the number of protons Atomic Mass (A)
it has in its nucleus
Atomic Number:
Number of protons
1
Atomic Mass:
Sum of neutrons and 1 H +

protons
Hydrogen Nucleus
Atomic number (Z)
Atomic Number: 1
Atomic Mass: 1
 MAIN SEQUENCE
STARS
Main sequence The outward push from
stars are like our thermal pressure

sun
They have an
balance between The inward
push from
outward thermal gravity

pressure and
inward
gravitational The pressure is
pressure. generated from
the thermal
energy from
This balance is nuclear fusion
called hydrostatic in the core

equilibrium.
 Burning
The process of
hydrogen
burning occurs
in the core of
stars
It is also
called ‘proton-
proton fusion.”
It consists of
3 steps.
It requires
temperature of
10 million K or
 STEP 1 : Proton – Proton
Fusion
Fusion: the
combining of 2
or more atoms
to create a
new, larger 1
atom
1
H +
Hydrogen
+ 2
burning, or H
proton-proton 1
n 1

fusion, occurs 1
H +
in main
sequence
stars.
Forms a
 STEP 2 : Deuterium - Hydrogen
Deuterium Fusion
nucleus
combines +
2
with a
regular 1
H n 3 +
Hydrogen 2 He +
nucleus n
1
Forms a 1H +
Helium-3
nucleus:
Atomic
number: 2
 Step 3 : ALP H A PARTICLE
FORMATION
Two Helium-3
nuclei +
combine to 3
form a He + 4
+
2 He
Helium-4 2 n
nucleus
+
n +
The Helium-4
3 + n
nucleus:
2 He +
n
Atomic
number: 2 +
Atomic mass:
 ALPHA PARTICLE

The 4He atom is

known as an
alpha particle.
4 +
2
He n +
n
It is one of the
building blocks
of larger
elements.
 SUMMARY
Atoms are made of subatomic particles.
These consist of protons, neutrons and electrons.
An atom is described by its atomic number and atomic mass.
The gravitational pressure in stars is balanced by an outward
thermal pressure.
The energy is generated by nuclear fusion in stars.
Hydrogen burning is a nuclear fusion process which results in
the formation of alpha particles (Helium-4 nuclei).
This occurs through proton-proton fusion, which is a 3-step
process.
ALPHA FUSION IN
STARS

INTRODUCTION IN THE
FORMATION OF HEAVIER
ELEMENTS
 STELLAR
EVOLUTION

Main Sequence
Stars derive their
energy from
hydrogen fusion.
Red Giants
generate their
energy through
helium (alpha
particle) fusion.
 RED GIANTS
As a star uses up its
hydrogen, helium
accumulates in its
core, and will
eventually burn.
The remaining
hydrogen continues
to burn in a shell
around the core
The hydrogen-shell
burning increases the
thermal pressure,
which causes the star
to expand into a Red
 STEP 1: BERYLLIUM
FORMATION
The fusion of He-4
(alpha particles) is
also called alpha
fusion.
In a triple-alpha
process, typical of
many red giants, the
helium atoms
combine to form
carbon.
In the first step, two
alpha particles
combine to make
 STEP 2: C – 12
FORMATION
In the second
step of the
triple-alpha
process, one
alpha particles
combines with
the Be-8
nucleus to form
a C-12 nucleus
(A= 12; Z= 6)
More massive stars
(>5 solar masses) can
SUPER GIANT
evolve to become
Super Giants. STARS
These are important
in the synthesis of
heavier elements up
to iron (Fe).
In these stars, alpha
fusion continues past
the triple-alpha
process. This forms a
chain of alpha
processes that result
in subsequently
heavier nuclei.
 CHAIN OF ALPHA
PROCESSES
This chain of Alpha 12 C + 4 He → 16 O CARBON BURNING
Processes is also 16 O + 4 He → 20 Ne OXYGEN BURNING
termed the alpha
ladder.
20 Ne + 4 He → 24 Mg
24 Mg + 4 He → 28 Si
In this, an alpha particle
is added to an atomic 24 Si + 4 He → 32 S SILICON BURNING
nucleus (such as 32 S + 4 He → 36 Ar
carbon) to form 36 Ar + 4 He → 40 Ca
oxygen.
40 Ca + 4 He → 44 Ti
The addition of an
alpha particle to an
44 Ti + 4 He → 48 Cr
atom adds 2 protons 48 Cr + 4 He → 52 Fe
(and therefore the
atomic number of the
 FORMATION OF ODD
ELEMENTS

 Odd elements are not formed through the alpha ladder in stars.

 The Oddo-Harkins rule states that even numbered elements are inherently
more stable (and therefore more common) than odd elements.
 Odd elements can be formed during the Big Bang, radioactive decay or
supernova nucleosynthesis.
 CONCLUSIO
During a star’s
lifetime, it burns
heavier and heavier
NS
elements.
Heavier elements
burn faster
(see table on right)
When it accumulates
Fe in the core and
can no longer
maintain a balance
of temperature and
pressure, the star
will undergo core
collapse
 SUMMARY
After hydrogen fusion, larger stars can continue with
the fusion of heavier elements.
Red Giants can fuse helium and form carbon (triple-
alpha process).
Super Giant Stars can form elements from later steps
of alpha fusion.
The alpha ladder can form the even elements lighter
than iron.
The odd elements can be formed in supernova or
through nuclear decay.
Even elements are more common than odd
elements.
After a star is exhausted of energy, its core will
consist of Fe (and outer shells of lighter elements).
FORMATION OF HEAVIER
ELEMENTS

An explanation of how
elements heavier than
Fe are produced in
supernovae
PERIODIC
TABLE The periodic table
is used to
organize the
chemical elements
by their atomic
number
Atomic number:
sum of protons.
Atomic Mass: sum
of the protons
and neutrons.
The origin of the
elements is in
stars and
supernova, as
explained in
 ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms of
the same atomic
number, but different
atomic mass.
This is because they
have a different
number of neutrons.

All isotopes of the same element have

the same number of protons
(This is necessary, because an elements
identity is based on the proton
number)
 SUPERNOVA
When the star’s core
consists of Fe, the star EXPLOSION
can no longer
balance inward
gravitational energy
with outward thermal
pressure.
This results in ‘core
collapse’ in which the
star beings to
implode.
This then results in a
rebound that creates
an outward shock
wave.
The energy released
results in a supernova
explosion.
 VALLEY OF
STABILITY
Atomic stability is
determined by an ideal
ratio of protons to
neutrons (seen in the
diagram).
For elements, there are
multiple isotopes
possible.
The stable isotopes are
located along the black
line.
The other regions in
color consist of
 MADE OF
STARS
This image is titled
“The Pillars of
Creation” and was
taken by the Hubble
Telescope in 1995.
It is an image of a gas
and dust in the Eagle
Nebula.
It is an iconic image
and is a reminder that
the beginnings of the
Solar System and life
on Earth come from
these primitive clouds
of dust and gas.
 SUMMARY
 Elements heavier than iron (Fe) are formed
during a Type II supernova explosion.
 The elements on the periodic table are organized
according to their atomic number (Z, which is
equivalent to the number of protons).
 Isotopes are different forms of the same element,
with different atomic masses. This is because
isotopes of an element have a different number
of neutrons (but the same number of protons).
 The stability of a nucleus is determined by the
ratio of neutrons to protons. Unstable nuclides
are subject to radioactive decay