Networks

Session 2
Today’s Topics

• A Review of Last Session’s Topics

• More About the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
• The OSI Media Layers
• Layer 1, the Physical Layer
• Layer 2, the Data Link Layer
• Layer 3, the Network Layer
• More on Ethernet, a Layer 2 Protocol
• More on Internet Protocol (IP), a Layer 3 Protocol
A Review of LANs and WANs

• What are Local Area Networks (LAN)?

• What are they composed of?
• What function do they require for communication?
• What are Wide Area Networks (WAN)?
• What are they composed of?
• What functions do they require for communication?
• What is an example of a Layer 2 protocol?
• What is an example of a Layer 3 protocol?
• What do we mean by layers?
Terminology: Some Review, Some New

• Model - The structural design of a complex system

• Interface - In object-oriented programming, a piece of code defining a
set of operations that other code must implement
Source https://www.wordnik.com

• Protocol Stack - The protocol stack is used to allow the combination

of different protocols that each set the boundaries
for a number of network activities
Source https://www.techopedia.com/definition/9005/protocol-stack
More on The OSI Model

• Also known as “The Basic

Reference Model for Open Systems
Interconnection”
• A joint ISO and CCITT standard
• Today we are concerned with the
lower three layers, the Media
Layers

Source https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Osi-model-
jb.svg/886px-Osi-model-jb.svg.png
The OSI Media Layers

• Layer 1 – The Physical Layer which deals in raw bits

• Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer which deals in frames
• Layer 3 – The Networks Layer which deals in packet
• Remember this is a model and many different protocols may be
developed to implement its layers
Layer 1 – The Physical Layer

• Layer 1 deals with the “transmission and reception of raw bit streams
over a physical medium.”
• This layer puts unformatted bits on a physical medium or radio
frequency
• Hubs, repeaters and cable plant operate at Layer 1.
Source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model
Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer

• Layer 2 deals with the “reliable transmission of data frames between

two nodes connected by a physical layer.”
• This layer is about the communication of directly connected nodes
like on a LAN
• Switches and wireless access points operate at Layer 2.
Source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model
Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer

• It has two sublayers with different jobs:

• “Medium access control (MAC) layer – Responsible for controlling how
devices in a network gain access to a medium and permission to transmit
data.”
• “Logical link control (LLC) layer – Responsible for identifying and
encapsulating network layer protocols, and controls error checking and frame
synchronization.”
Source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model

• These functions are defined in a standard published by the Institute

of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 802.3
Layer 3 – The Network Layer

• Layer 3 is responsible for “structuring and managing a multi-node

network, including addressing, routing and traffic control.”
• This layer handles communication between nodes on different
networks
• Routers, firewalls and Layer 3 Switches operate at Layer 3
Source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model
Summarizing the OSI Model

• The OSI Model is a general model explaining how systems on

networks might communicate
• There are other models, such as the very similar TCP/IP network
model which we will skip
• Real world protocols don’t necessarily adhere to models
• The IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard implements OSI Layer 2
• The Internet Protocol implements OSI Layer 3
A Layer 2 Protocol - Wired Ethernet

• The IEEE 802.3 standards family includes many individual standards:

• “100Base-TX (IEEE 802.3u) – known as Fast Ethernet, uses category 5, 5E, or 6 UTP wiring, up to
100 meters long.
• 100Base-FX (IEEE 802.3u) – a version of Fast Ethernet that uses multi-mode optical fiber. Up to
412 meters long.
• 1000Base-T (IEEE 802.3ab) – Gigabit Ethernet that uses Category 5 UTP wiring. Up to 100 meters
long.
• 1000Base-SX (IEEE 802.3z) – 1 Gigabit Ethernet running over multimode fiber-optic cable.
• 1000Base-LX (IEEE 802.3z) – 1 Gigabit Ethernet running over single-mode fiber.
• 10GBase-T (802.3.an) – 10 Gbps connections over category 5e, 6, and 7 UTP cables.”
Source http://study-ccna.com/ieee-ethernet-standards/
A Layer 2 Protocol - Wireless Ethernet

• The IEEE 802.11 standard family defines wireless Ethernet standards

• Specifically Layer 1 and the MAC portion of Layer 2

Source http://www.l-com.com/images/80211-wireless-standards.jpg
Characteristics of the Ethernet MAC Sublayer
of Layer 2, the Data Link Layer

• The MAC sublayer of the Data Link Layer:

• Handles carrier sense and collision detection
• Implements CSMA/CD
• CS stands for Carrier Sense – Is another node use the link? If so hold off.
• MA stands for Multiple Access – The media is shared, as long as it’s quiet talk away.
• CD stands for Collision Detection – If we notice that we talked over someone else we
should stop talking and try again later
Source https://www.cs.purdue.edu/homes/park/cs422-link-2.pdf
Characteristics of the Ethernet LLC Sublayer of
Layer 2, the Data Link Layer

• The LLC Sublayer of the Data Link Layer:

• Provides Layer 3 Protocol Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• It used to be more common to have multiple Layer 3 protocols running on a machine
• The LLC sublayer looks at incoming frames and hands off the traffic to the
correct Layer 3 protocols
Source http://computernetworkingsimplified.in/data-link-layer/components-data-link-layer-llc-mac/
Ethernet MAC Addresses

• We call them a Media Access Control (MAC) addresses as well as

hardware or burned-in addresses
• They are specific to each network interface or adapter
• Format:
• Usually expressed in hexadecimal and 48-bits, or 6-bytes, in length
• First 3 bytes identify the manufacturer
• Second 3 bytes are a serial number
• An example MAC/hardware/burned-in address, which part is which?
• 1c:3e:84:b8:b0:15
Ethernet MAC Addresses

• To view the MAC addresses on a Windows machine type:

• ipconfig /all
• To view the MAC addresses on a Linux system type:
• ifconfig -a
Summarizing Ethernet

• Ethernet is a family of Layer 2 protocols defined in the IEEE 802.3

standards
• Wireless Ethernet is defined in IEEE 802.11
• Ethernet adapters have 48-bit MAC address
Internet Protocol version 4

• Internet Protocol (IP) version four is a Layer 3 protocol

• There is a newer version of IP, version 6, but we will not be covering it
today
• IP allows for logical addresses
• Logical addresses are assigned by administrators
• They can be grouped to allow address ranges to be summarized by location
• This makes it possible to route traffic to any one of the billions of connected
devices without having to know exactly where it is
 IP Addresses
• An IP address is 32-bits long
• Sometimes we say it is divided into four octets, or groups of 8 bits, for
example:
• W.X.Y.Z, where each letter represents 8 bits
• 8 bits can have 2^8 possible values, so we can use it to count from 1
to 256 (we start counting at 0, though, so we use 0 to 255)
• Expressing four numbers like this, each ranging from 0 to 255, may
seem strange, but remember computers see everything in binary
• An IP address may be 192.168.1.1 in its human readable form, but
they computer sees it as 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001.
IP Addresses – Network and Host Portions

• Here are some examples of IP addresses:

• 192.168.76.9
• 10.5.6.232
• Each IP address has to portions:
• A network portion
• A host portion
• As you’d expect, the network portion identifies a network and
normally it identifies a Local Area Network
• The host portion represents all the individual addresses available for
machines in that network
IP Addresses – Network and Host Portions

• Let’s say we have the address 192.168.1.0

• And lets say the first two octets identify the network portion
• The last octet identifies the host portion
• What is this network’s identifier?
• How many hosts can we have on this network?
Identifying an IP Network

• So how can you tell which part of 172.16.0.0 represents the network
and which part represents the hosts?
• Nowadays you refer to the subnet mask.
• The subnet mask identifies the number of bits on the left side of the
address you should consider to be the network, everything else is for
hosts
 Subnet Mask Example
• Let’s take 192.168.1.0, and let’s say we have a subnet mask of
255.255.255.0, or put another way, 24 bits
• We might right this as:
• 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0
• 192.168.1.0/24
• In binary the network 192.168.1.0 and its 24-bit mask are:
• IP Address 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000
• Subnet Mask 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

• IP
Subnet Mask Discussion

• This is weird for humans who are used to counting with a decimal
system, so let’s pause here for discussion
IP Summary

• We’ve talked about IP as a Layer 3 protocol

• We know that an IP address is 32-bit long, and that a portion of this
identifies the network and a portion of it identifies the hosts on that
network
• We know that the computer uses a subnet mask to determine how
many bits of an address represent the host
Summary

• Today we’ve gone over the OSI model in a little more detail
• We’ve talk about the Media Layers of the OSI model
• We discussed how Ethernet and IP implement Layers 2 and 3
respectively
• We know that Layer 2 addresses are significant on LANs
• We know that Layer 3 addresses are needed to create the logical
network hierarchy used in large networks
• We started our discussion of IP addresses which we will continue next
time