DAET 125: Fundamental of Manufacturing

Technology

Chapter 5: WELDING PROCESSES

DESPARK COLLEGE (PJ)

 WELDING PROCESSES
1. Arc Welding
2. Resistance Welding
3. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
4. Other Fusion Welding Processes
5. Solid State Welding
6. Weld Quality
7. Weldability
8. Design Considerations in Welding
 Arc Welding (AW)

 A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the

metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc
between an electrode and the work
 Electric energy from the arc produces temperatures ~
10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough to melt any metal
 Most AW processes add filler metal to increase
volume and strength of weld joint
 Electric Arc

 An electric arc is a discharge of electric current

across a gap in a circuit
 It is sustained by an ionized column of gas
(plasma) through which the current flows
 To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought into
contact with work and then quickly separated
from it by a short distance
 Arc Welding

A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode

tip, and as electrode is moved along joint,
molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

Figure 31.1 Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

 Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes

 Consumable – consumed during welding process

 Source of filler metal in arc welding

 Nonconsumable – not consumed during welding process

 Filler metal must be added separately
 Arc Shielding

 At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically reactive to oxygen,

nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
 Mechanical properties of joint can be seriously degraded by these
reactions
 To protect operation, arc must be shielded from surrounding air in
AW processes
 Arc shielding is accomplished by:
 Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2

 Flux
 Power Source in Arc Welding

 Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

 AC machines less expensive to purchase and operate, but generally
restricted to ferrous metals
 DC equipment can be used on all metals and is generally noted for
better arc control
 Resistance Welding (RW)

 A group of fusion welding processes that use a combination of heat and

pressure to accomplish coalescence
 Heat generated by electrical resistance to current flow at junction to be
welded
 Principal RW process is resistance spot welding (RSW)
 Resistance Welding

Figure 31.12 Resistance

welding, showing the
components in spot
welding, the main
process in the RW
group.
 Components in Resistance Spot Welding

 Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)

 Two opposing electrodes
 Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts between electrodes
 Power supply from which a controlled current can be applied for a
specified time duration
 Advantages / Drawbacks of RW
Advantages:
 No filler metal required

 High production rates possible

 Lends itself to mechanization and automation

 Lower operator skill level than for arc welding

 Good repeatability and reliability

Disadvantages:
 High initial equipment cost

 Limited to lap joints for most RW processes

 Skilled operators are required

 Bigger job thickness cannot be welded

Applications of resistance welding

 Joining sheets, bars and tubes.

 Making tubes and metal furniture.
 Welding aircraft and automobile parts.
 Making cutting tools.
 Making fuel tanks of cars, tractors etc.
 Making wire fabrics, grids, grills, mesh weld,
containers etc.
 Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)

 Resistance welding process in which fusion of faying surfaces

of a lap joint is achieved at one location by opposing
electrodes
 Used to join sheet metal parts using a series of spot welds
 Widely used in mass production of automobiles, appliances,
metal furniture, and other products made of sheet metal
 Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds

 Annual production of automobiles in the world is measured

in tens of millions of units
 Spot Welding Cycle

Figure 31.13 (a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of squeezing force &
current in cycle (1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2)
electrodes close, force applied, (3) current on, (4) current off, (5)
electrodes opened.
 Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)

 Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a

series of overlapping spot welds along lap joint
 Can produce air-tight joints
 Applications:
 Gasoline tanks

 Automobile mufflers

 Various other sheet metal containers

Resistance Seam Welding

Figure 31.15 Resistance seam welding (RSEW).

 Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)

 Group of fusion welding operations that burn various fuels mixed with
oxygen
 OFW employs several types of gases, which is the primary distinction
among the members of this group
 Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut and separate
metal plates and other parts
 Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

 Fusion welding performed by a high temperature flame from combustion

of acetylene and oxygen
 Flame is directed by a welding torch
 Filler metal is sometimes added
 Composition must be similar to base metal

 Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces and prevent
oxidation
 Oxyacetylene Welding

Figure 31.21 A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).

Acetylene (C2H2)

 Most popular fuel among OFW group because it is capable of higher

temperatures than any other - up to 3480C (6300F)
 Two stage chemical reaction of acetylene and oxygen:
 First stage reaction (inner cone of flame):

C2H2 + O2  2CO + H2 + heat

 Second stage reaction (outer envelope):

2CO + H2 + 1.5O2  2CO2 + H2O + heat

 Oxyacetylene Torch

 Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner

cone, while outer envelope spreads out and
shields work surfaces from atmosphere

Figure 31.22 The neutral flame from an oxyacetylene torch

indicating temperatures achieved.
 Alternative Gases for OFW

 Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MAPP)
 Hydrogen
 Propylene
 Propane
 Natural Gas
 Other Fusion Welding Processes

 FW processes that cannot be classified as arc, resistance, or oxyfuel

welding
 Use unique technologies to develop heat for melting
 Applications are typically unique
 Processes include:
 Electron beam welding

 Laser beam welding

 Electroslag welding

 Thermit welding
 Thermit Welding (TW)

 FW process in which heat for coalescence is produced by superheated

molten metal from the chemical reaction of thermite
 Thermite = mixture of Al and Fe3O4 fine powders that produce an
exothermic reaction when ignited
 Also used for incendiary bombs
 Filler metal obtained from liquid metal
 Process used for joining, but has more in common with casting than
welding
 Thermit Welding

Figure 31.25 Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped,
superheated metal flows into mold; (3) metal solidifies to produce weld
joint.
 TW Applications

 Joining of railroad rails

 Repair of cracks in large steel castings and forgings
 Weld surface is often smooth enough that no finishing is required
 Solid State Welding (SSW)

 Coalescence of part surfaces is achieved by:

 Pressure alone, or

 Heat and pressure

 If both heat and pressure are used, heat is not enough to melt
work surfaces
 For some SSW processes, time is also a factor

 No filler metal is added

 Each SSW process has its own way of creating a bond at the faying
surfaces
 Success Factors in SSW

 Essential factors for a successful solid state weld are that the two
faying surfaces must be:
 Very clean

 In very close physical contact with each other to permit atomic

bonding
 SSW Advantages over FW Processes

 If no melting, then no heat affected zone, so metal around joint retains

original properties
 Many SSW processes produce welded joints that bond the entire
contact interface between two parts rather than at distinct spots or
seams
 Some SSW processes can be used to bond dissimilar metals, without
concerns about relative melting points, thermal expansions, and other
problems that arise in FW
 Solid State Welding Processes

 Forge welding
 Cold welding
 Roll welding
 Hot pressure welding
 Diffusion welding
 Explosion welding
 Friction welding
 Ultrasonic welding
 Forge Welding

 Welding process in which components to be joined are heated to hot

working temperature range and then forged together by hammering or
similar means
 Historic significance in development of manufacturing technology
 Process dates from about 1000 B.C., when blacksmiths learned to
weld two pieces of metal
 Of minor commercial importance today except for its variants
 Cold Welding (CW)

 SSW process done by applying high pressure between clean contacting

surfaces at room temperature
 Cleaning usually done by degreasing and wire brushing immediately
before joining
 No heat is applied, but deformation raises work temperature
 At least one of the metals, preferably both, must be very ductile
 Soft aluminum and copper suited to CW

 Applications: making electrical connections

 Roll Welding (ROW)

 SSW process in which pressure sufficient to cause coalescence is

applied by means of rolls, either with or without external heat
 Variation of either forge welding or cold welding, depending on whether
heating of workparts is done prior to process
 If no external heat, called cold roll welding

 If heat is supplied, hot roll welding

 Roll Welding

Figure 31.26 Roll welding (ROW).

 Roll Welding Applications

 Cladding stainless steel to mild or low alloy steel for corrosion

resistance
 Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature
 "Sandwich" coins for U.S mint
 Diffusion Welding (DFW)

 SSW process uses heat and pressure, usually in a controlled

atmosphere, with sufficient time for diffusion and coalescence to occur
 Temperatures  0.5 Tm
 Plastic deformation at surfaces is minimal
 Primary coalescence mechanism is solid state diffusion
 Limitation: time required for diffusion can range from seconds to hours
 DFW Applications

 Joining of high-strength and refractory metals in aerospace and nuclear

industries
 Can be used to join either similar and dissimilar metals
 For joining dissimilar metals, a filler layer of different metal is often
sandwiched between base metals to promote diffusion
 Explosion Welding (EXW)

 SSW process in which rapid coalescence of two metallic surfaces is

caused by the energy of a detonated explosive
 No filler metal used
 No external heat applied
 No diffusion occurs - time is too short
 Bonding is metallurgical, combined with mechanical interlocking that
results from a rippled or wavy interface between the metals
 Explosive Welding

 Commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals,

in particular to clad one metal on top of a base
metal over large areas

Figure 31.27 Explosive welding (EXW): (1) setup in the parallel

configuration, and (2) during detonation of the explosive charge.
 Friction Welding (FRW)

 SSW process in which coalescence is achieved by frictional heat

combined with pressure
 When properly carried out, no melting occurs at faying surfaces
 No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally used
 Process yields a narrow HAZ
 Can be used to join dissimilar metals
 Widely used commercial process, amenable to automation and mass
production
 Friction Welding

Figure 31.28 Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact; (2)
parts brought into contact to generate friction heat; (3) rotation
stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.
 Two Types of Friction Welding
1. Continuous-drive friction welding
 One part is driven at constant rpm against
stationary part to cause friction heat at
interface
 At proper temperature, rotation is stopped
and parts are forced together
2. Inertia friction welding
 Rotating part is connected to flywheel,
which is brought up to required speed
 Flywheel is disengaged from drive, and
parts are forced together
 Applications / Limitations of FRW

Applications:
 Shafts and tubular parts

 Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm equipment, petroleum and natural

gas
Limitations:
 At least one of the parts must be rotational

 Flash must usually be removed

 Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must be taken into

consideration in product design)
Ultrasonic Welding (USW)

 Two components are held together, oscillatory shear stresses of

ultrasonic frequency are applied to interface to cause coalescence
 Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface films to allow intimate
contact and strong metallurgical bonding between surfaces
 Although heating of surfaces occurs, temperatures are well below Tm
 No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
 Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials such as aluminum and
copper
 Ultrasonic Welding

Figure 31.29 Ultrasonic welding (USW): (a) general setup for a lap
joint; and (b) close-up of weld area.
 USW Applications

 Wire terminations and splicing in electrical and

electronics industry
 Eliminates need for soldering

 Assembly of aluminum sheet metal panels

 Welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels
 Assembly of small parts in automotive industry
 Weld Quality

 Concerned with obtaining an acceptable weld joint that is strong

and absent of defects, and the methods of inspecting and testing
the joint to assure its quality
 Topics:
 Residual stresses and distortion

 Welding defects

 Inspection and testing methods

 Residual Stresses and Distortion

 Rapid heating and cooling in localized regions during FW result in

thermal expansion and contraction that cause residual stresses
 These stresses, in turn, cause distortion and warpage
 Situation in welding is complicated because:
 Heating is very localized

 Melting of base metals in these regions

 Location of heating and melting is in motion (at least in AW)

 Techniques to Minimize Warpage

 Welding fixtures to physically restrain parts

 Heat sinks to rapidly remove heat
 Tack welding at multiple points along joint to create a rigid structure
prior to seam welding
 Selection of welding conditions (speed, amount of filler metal used, etc.)
to reduce warpage
 Preheating base parts
 Stress relief heat treatment of welded assembly
 Proper design of weldment
 Welding Defects

 Cracks
 Cavities
 Solid inclusions
 Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
 Incomplete fusion
 Miscellaneous defects
Welding Cracks

 Fracture-type interruptions either in weld or in base metal adjacent to

weld
 Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the metal that
significantly reduces strength
 Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of weld and/or base metal
combined with high restraint during contraction
 In general, this defect must be repaired
 Welding Cracks

Figure 31.31 Various forms of welding cracks.

 Cavities

 Two defect types, similar to defects found in castings:

1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by gases entrapped during
solidification
 Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases, sulfur in weld metal, or
surface contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage during solidification
Solid Inclusions

 Solid inclusions - nonmetallic material entrapped in weld metal

 Most common form is slag inclusions generated during AW processes
that use flux
 Instead of floating to top of weld pool, globules of slag become
encased during solidification
 Metallic oxides that form during welding of certain metals such as
aluminum, which normally has a surface coating of Al2O3
 Incomplete Fusion

 Also known as lack of fusion, it is simply a weld

bead in which fusion has not occurred
throughout entire cross section of joint

Figure 31.32 Several forms of incomplete fusion.

 Weld Profile in AW

 Weld joint should have a certain desired profile to

maximize strength and avoid incomplete fusion
and lack of penetration

Figure 31.33 (a) Desired weld profile for single V-groove weld joint.
 Weld Defects in AW

Figure 31.33 Same joint but with several weld defects: (b) undercut, in
which a portion of the base metal part is melted away; (c) underfill, a
depression in the weld below the level of the adjacent base metal
surface; and (d) overlap, in which the weld metal spills beyond the joint
onto the surface of the base part but no fusion occurs.
 Inspection and Testing Methods

 Visual inspection
 Nondestructive evaluation
 Destructive testing
Visual Inspection

 Most widely used welding inspection method

 Human inspector visually examines for:
 Conformance to dimensions

 Warpage

 Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion, and

other surface defects
 Limitations:
 Only surface defects are detectable

 Welding inspector must also determine if

additional tests are warranted
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) Tests
 Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound
waves directed through specimen - cracks,
inclusions are detected by loss in sound
transmission
 Radiographic testing - x-rays or gamma
radiation provide photograph of internal flaws
 Dye-penetrant and fluorescent-penetrant tests
- methods for detecting small cracks and
cavities that are open at surface
 Magnetic particle testing – iron filings sprinkled
on surface reveal subsurface defects by
distorting magnetic field in part
Destructive Testing

 Tests in which weld is destroyed either during testing or to prepare test

specimen
 Mechanical tests - purpose is similar to conventional testing methods
such as tensile tests, shear tests, etc
 Metallurgical tests - preparation of metallurgical specimens (e.g.,
photomicrographs) of weldment to examine metallic structure, defects,
extent and condition of heat affected zone, and similar phenomena
Weldability Factors – Welding Process

 Some metals or metal combinations can be readily welded by one

process but are difficult to weld by others
 Example: stainless steel readily welded by most AW and RW
processes, but difficult to weld by OFW
Weldability Factors – Base Metal

 Some metals melt too easily; e.g., aluminum

 Metals with high thermal conductivity transfer
heat away from weld, which causes problems; e.g.,
copper
 High thermal expansion and contraction in metal
causes distortion problems
 Dissimilar metals pose problems in welding when
their physical and/or mechanical properties are
substantially different
Other Factors Affecting Weldability

 Filler metal
 Must be compatible with base metal(s)

 In general, elements mixed in liquid state that

form a solid solution upon solidification will not
cause a problem
 Surface conditions
 Moisture can result in porosity in fusion zone

 Oxides and other films on metal surfaces can

prevent adequate contact and fusion
Other Factors Affecting Weldability – In Shielded
Gas Welding
 Torch movement speed.
 Need constant and correct speed.
 Current and voltage setting
 Constant and correct current setting
 Shield gas flow rate.
 Constant and enough gas to shield the welding
area until the melted area re-
 Solidified.
 Shield gas type.
 Some materials are reactive against certain
shield gas (titanium and nitrogen)
Design Considerations in Welding

 Design for welding - product should be designed from the start as a

welded assembly, and not as a casting or forging or other formed shape
 Minimum parts - welded assemblies should consist of fewest number of
parts possible
 Example: usually more cost efficient to perform simple bending
operations on a part than to weld an assembly from flat plates and
sheets
Arc Welding Design Guidelines

 Good fit-up of parts - to maintain dimensional

control and minimize distortion
 Machining is sometimes required to achieve
satisfactory fit-up
 Assembly must allow access for welding gun to
reach welding area
 Design of assembly should allow flat welding to be
performed as much as possible, since this is
fastest and most convenient welding position
 Arc Welding Positions

 Flat welding is best position

 Overhead welding is most difficult

Figure 31.35 Welding positions (defined here for groove welds):

(a) flat, (b) horizontal, (c) vertical, and (d) overhead.
 BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND ADHESIVE
BONDING
1. Brazing
2. Soldering
3. Adhesive Bonding
Overview of Brazing and Soldering

 Both use filler metals to permanently join metal

parts, but there is no melting of base metals
 When to use brazing or soldering instead of
fusion welding:
 Metals have poor weldability

 Dissimilar metals are to be joined

 Intense heat of welding may damage

components being joined
 Geometry of joint not suitable for welding

 High strength is not required

 Overview of Adhesive Bonding

 Uses forces of attachment between a filler material and two

closely-spaced surfaces to bond the parts
 Filler material in adhesive bonding is not metallic

 Joining process can be carried out at room temperature or only

modestly above
Brazing

 Joining process in which a filler metal is melted and distributed by

capillary action between faying surfaces of metal parts being joined
 No melting of base metals occurs
 Only the filler melts

 Filler metal Tm greater than 450C (840F) but less than Tm of base
metal(s) to be joined
Strength of Brazed Joint

 If joint is properly designed and brazing operation is properly performed,

solidified joint will be stronger than filler metal out of which it was
formed
 Why?
 Small part clearances used in brazing

 Metallurgical bonding that occurs between base and filler metals

 Geometric constrictions imposed on joint by base parts

 Brazing Compared to Welding

 Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar metals

 Can be performed quickly and consistently, permitting high production
rates
 Multiple joints can be brazed simultaneously
 Less heat and power required than FW
 Problems with HAZ in base metal are reduced
 Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding processes can be
brazed; capillary action draws molten filler metal into joint
 Disadvantages and Limitations of Brazing

 Joint strength is generally less than a welded joint

 Joint strength is likely to be less than the base metals
 High service temperatures may weaken a brazed joint
 Color of brazing metal may not match color of base metal parts, a
possible aesthetic disadvantage
 Brazing Applications

 Automotive (e.g., joining tubes and pipes)

 Electrical equipment (e.g., joining wires and cables)
 Cutting tools (e.g., brazing cemented carbide inserts to shanks)
 Jewelry
 Chemical process industry
 Plumbing and heating contractors join metal pipes and tubes by brazing
 Repair and maintenance work
 Brazed Joints

 Butt and lap joints common

 Geometry of butt joints is usually adapted for brazing

 Lap joints are more widely used, since they provide larger interface
area between parts
 Filler metal in a brazed lap joint is bonded to base parts throughout
entire interface area, rather than only at edges
 Butt Joints for Brazing

Figure 32.1 (a) Conventional butt joint, and adaptations of the

butt joint for brazing: (b) scarf joint, (c) stepped butt joint,
(d) increased cross-section of the part at the joint.
 Lap Joints for Brazing

Figure 32.2 (a) Conventional lap joint, and adaptations of the lap joint
for brazing: (b) cylindrical parts, (c) sandwiched parts, and (d) use of
sleeve to convert butt joint into lap joint.
 Some Filler Metals for Brazing

Base metal(s) Filler metal(s)

Aluminum Aluminum and silicon
Nickel-copper alloy Copper
Copper Copper and phosphorous
Steel, cast iron Copper and zinc
Stainless steel Gold and silver
 Desirable Brazing Metal Characteristics

 Melting temperature of filler metal is compatible with base metal

 Low surface tension in liquid phase for good wettability
 High fluidity for penetration into interface
 Capable of being brazed into a joint of adequate strength for application
 Avoid chemical and physical interactions with base metal (e.g., galvanic
reaction)
 Applying Filler Metal

Figure 32.4 Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing: (a)
torch and filler rod. Sequence: (1) before, and (2) after.
 Applying Filler Metal

Figure 32.4 Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing: (b)
ring of filler metal at entrance of gap. Sequence: (1) before, and (2)
after.
 Brazing Fluxes

 Similar purpose as in welding; they dissolve, combine with, and

otherwise inhibit formation of oxides and other unwanted byproducts in
brazing process
 Characteristics of a good flux include:
 Low melting temperature

 Low viscosity so it can be displaced by filler metal

 Facilitates wetting

 Protects joint until solidification of filler metal

Heating Methods in Brazing

 Torch Brazing - torch directs flame against work in vicinity of joint

 Furnace Brazing - furnace supplies heat
 Induction Brazing – heating by electrical resistance to high-frequency
current in work
 Resistance Brazing - heating by electrical resistance in parts
 Dip Brazing - molten salt or molten metal bath
 Infrared Brazing - uses high-intensity infrared lamp
Soldering

 Joining process in which a filler metal with Tm

less than or equal to 450C (840F) is melted and
distributed by capillary action between faying
surfaces of metal parts being joined
 No melting of base metals, but filler metal wets
and combines with base metal to form
metallurgical bond
 Soldering similar to brazing, and many of the
same heating methods are used
 Filler metal called solder
 Most closely associated with electrical and
electronics assembly (wire soldering)
 Soldering Advantages / Disadvantages

Advantages:
 Lower energy than brazing or fusion welding

 Variety of heating methods available

 Good electrical and thermal conductivity in joint

 Easy repair and rework

Disadvantages:
 Low joint strength unless reinforced by mechanically means

 Possible weakening or melting of joint in elevated temperature service

 Solders

 Usually alloys of tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). Both

metals have low Tm
 Lead is poisonous and its percentage is
minimized in most solders
 Tin is chemically active at soldering
temperatures and promotes wetting action for
successful joining
 In soldering copper, copper and tin form
intermetallic compounds that strengthen bond
 Silver and antimony also used in soldering
alloys
 Mechanical Means to Secure Joint

Figure 32.8 Techniques for securing the joint by mechanical means prior to
soldering in electrical connections: (a) crimped lead wire on PC board; (b)
plated through-hole on PC board to maximize solder contact surface; (c)
hooked wire on flat terminal; and (d) twisted wires.
 Functions of Soldering Fluxes

 Be molten at soldering temperatures

 Remove oxide films and tarnish from base part surfaces
 Prevent oxidation during heating
 Promote wetting of faying surfaces
 Be readily displaced by molten solder during process
 Leave residue that is non-corrosive and nonconductive
 Soldering Methods

 Many soldering methods same as for brazing, except less heat and
lower temperatures are required
 Additional methods:
 Hand soldering – manually operated soldering gun

 Wave soldering – soldering of multiple lead wires in printed circuit

cards
 Reflow soldering –used for surface mount components on printed
circuit cards
 Wave Soldering

Figure 32.9 Wave soldering, in which molten solder is

delivered up through a narrow slot onto the underside of a
printed circuit board to connect the component lead wires.
 Adhesive Bonding

 Joining process in which a filler material is used to hold two (or more)
closely-spaced parts together by surface attachment
 Used in a wide range of bonding and sealing applications for joining
similar and dissimilar materials such as metals, plastics, ceramics, wood,
paper, and cardboard
 Considered a growth area because of opportunities for increased
applications
 Terminology in Adhesive Bonding

 Adhesive = filler material, nonmetallic, usually a polymer

 Adherends = parts being joined
 Structural adhesives – of greatest interest in engineering, capable of
forming strong, permanent joints between strong, rigid adherends
 Curing in Adhesive Bonding

 Process by which physical properties of the adhesive are changed from

liquid to solid, usually by chemical reaction, to accomplish surface
attachment of parts
 Curing often aided by heat and/or a catalyst
 If heat used, temperatures are relatively low

 Curing takes time - a disadvantage in production

 Pressure sometimes applied between parts to activate bonding process
 Joint Strength

 Depends on strength of:

 Adhesive
 Attachment between adhesive and
adherends
 Attachment mechanisms:
 Chemical bonding – adhesive and adherend
form primary bond on curing
 Physical interactions - secondary bonding
forces between surface atoms
 Mechanical interlocking - roughness of
adherend causes adhesive to become
entangled in surface asperities
 Joint Design

 Adhesive joints are not as strong as welded, brazed, or soldered joints

 Joint contact area should be maximized
 Adhesive joints are strongest in shear and tension
 Joints should be designed so applied stresses are of these types

 Adhesive bonded joints are weakest in cleavage or peeling

 Joints should be designed to avoid these types of stresses
 Types of Stresses in Adhesive Bonding

Figure 32.10 Types of stresses that must be considered

in adhesive bonded joints: (a) tension, (b) shear, (c)
cleavage, and (d) peeling.
 Joint Designs in Adhesive Bonding

Figure 32.11 Some joint designs for adhesive bonding: (a) through (d)
butt joints; (e) through (f) T-joints; (b) and (g) through (j) corner
joints.
 Adhesive Types

 Natural adhesives - derived from natural sources, including gums,

starch, dextrin, soya flour, collagen
 Low-stress applications: cardboard cartons, furniture, bookbinding,
plywood
 Inorganic - based principally on sodium silicate and magnesium
oxychloride
 Low cost, low strength

 Synthetic adhesives - various thermoplastic and thermosetting

polymers
 Synthetic Adhesives

 Most important category in manufacturing

 Synthetic adhesives cured by various
mechanisms:
 Mixing catalyst or reactive ingredient with
polymer prior to applying
 Heating to initiate chemical reaction

 Radiation curing, such as UV light

 Curing by evaporation of water

 Application as films or pressure-sensitive

coatings on surface of adherend
Applications of Adhesives

 Automotive, aircraft, building products, shipbuilding

 Packaging industries
 Footwear
 Furniture
 Bookbinding
 Electrical and electronics
 Surface Preparation

 For adhesive bonding to succeed, part

surfaces must be extremely clean
 Bond strength depends on degree of adhesion
between adhesive and adherend, and this
depends on cleanliness of surface
 For metals, solvent wiping often used for
cleaning, and abrading surface by
sandblasting improves adhesion
 For nonmetallic parts, surfaces are
sometimes mechanically abraded or
chemically etched to increase roughness
 Application Methods

 Manual brushing and rolling

 Silk screening
 Flowing, using manually operated dispensers
 Spraying
 Automatic applicators
 Roll coating
 Adhesive is dispensed
by a manually controlled
dispenser to bond parts
during assembly (photo
courtesy of EFD Inc.).
 Advantages of Adhesive Bonding

 Applicable to a wide variety of materials

 Bonding occurs over entire surface area of joint
 Low temperature curing avoids damage to parts being joined
 Sealing as well as bonding
 Joint design is often simplified, e.g., two flat surfaces can be joined
without providing special part features such as screw holes
 Limitations of Adhesive Bonding

 Joints generally not as strong as other joining methods

 Adhesive must be compatible with materials being joined
 Service temperatures are limited
 Cleanliness and surface preparation prior to application of adhesive are
important
 Curing times can limit production rates
 Inspection of bonded joint is difficult
DEFECTS IN WELDING
 Crack –due to poor weldability, fast and travel speed of electrode,
 Distorosion –due to more number of passes, slow arc travel, type of
joint, improper welding sequence, high residual stresses in the
metal,
 Incomplete penetration-Improper joints, less arc current, angle of
holding the electrode- normally 7-80 degree recommended.
 Inclusions – long arcs, large electro diameter, under cutting,
insufficient chipping.
 Porosity- improper electrode, faster arc travel, too low or too high
arc current, presence of scale, dust, oil, grease etc.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING
 Crack- may be in the form of microscopic scale or macroscopic scale
depending upon their size. Cracks may appear in the base metal, base
metal–weld boundary or in the weld metal. Cracks may be on the weld
surface or under the weld bead. Cracks may appear in the crater or in
the root.

 Causes- rigidity of the joint, poor ductility of the base metal, presence
of carbon, sulphur and hardenability, concave weld bead, fast travel arc
speed, electrode with high H2 content.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING
 Distortion – Base metals gets pre-heated and the base metal portion
already welded starts cooling. There is a good amount of temperature
difference at various points along the joint and thus at any instant
certain areas of base metal expand and other including weld bead
contracts.
 Causes- more number of passes with small diameter electrodes, slow
arc travel speed, types of joint. High residual stresses, welding
sequence improper.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING

 Incomplete penetration – Penetration is the distance from

base plate top surface to the maximum extent of the weld nugget.
 Causes- Improper joints, too small bevel angle, faster arc travel, too
larger electrode diameter, larger arc length, wrongly held electrode.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING

 Inclusions- Inclusions may be in the form slag or any other foreign

material, which does not get a chance to float on the surface of the
solidifying weld metal and gets entrapped inside. Inclusions lower the
strength of the joint and make it weaker.
 Causes- Too high or too low arc current, long arcs, too large electrode
diameter, insufficient chipping and cleaning of previous passes in multi-
pass welding, under cutting, wrongly placed tack welds, too small
included angle.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING
 Porosity and blow holes or gas pockets- Porosity is a group of small
voids, where as blow hole or gas pockets is a comparatively bigger
isolated hole or cavity. They occur mainly due to entrapped gases.
 Causes-Longer arcs, improper electrodes, faster arc travels, too low
and too high arc current, incorrect welding technique, electrode with
damp and damaged coating, scale , rust oil grease, etc if present on
the job surface, improper base metals.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING

 Poor fusion- Base metal may be deposited by the electrodes does

not fuse properly with the cold base metal and the two do not unite
properly and completely.

 Causes- Lower arc current, faster arc travel speed, presence of

oxides, rust, scale, and other impurities which do not permit the
deposited metal to fuse properly with the base metal.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING
 Spatter- Small metal particles which are thrown out of the arc during
welding and get deposited on the base metal around the weld bead
along its length.
 Causes- excessive current, longer arcs, damp electrodes, improper
coating on the electrode.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING
 Under current – groove gets formed in the base metal along the sides
of the weld bead. Groove reduce the thickness of the plate and thus the
area along the bead.
 Causes- too large electrode diameter, longer arc, faster travel of arc,
rusty and scaly job surfaces.
DEFECTS IN WEDLING
 Overlapping- It is reverse of under cutting. An overlap occurs when the
molten metal from the electrode flows over the parent metal surface
and remains there without getting properly fused and united with the
same.
 Cause- lower arc current, slower arc travel speed, longer arcs,
improper joint geometry.
TESTING AND INPSECTION

 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE

TESTING (NDT)
TESTING AND INPSECTION

 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING – Tensile test, bend test,

impact test, hardness test, etch test, nick break
test, etc.
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

 Visual inspection,
 Leak test,
 Stethoscope test,
 X –ray and Comma ray test,
 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI),
 Dye penetrant test,
 Fluorescent penetrant inspection,
 Ultasoin inspection,
 Eddy current testing,
INSPECTION & TESTING
 Inspection before welding.
 Inspection during welding.
 Inspection after welding.
 Destructive testing- tensile, bend, Impact test, hardness
test and etch test.
 Non-destructive test- Visual inspection, Stethoscope, X
ray and r ray inspection, Magnetic particle, Ultrasonic
test, eddy current test and fluorescent penetration
inspection, leak test, dye penetration test.