ENERGY SYSTEMS

Dr K.S.K
Assistant professor in Physiotherapy
SVIMS
 ENERGY SYSTEMS
• A. Energy
– 1. Energy for Cellular Activity
– 2. Energy Yield
• B. Bioenergetics
– 1. ATP-PC system
– 2. Glycolytic system
– 3. Oxidative system
– 4. Protein Metabolism
– 5. The Oxidative Capacity of Muscle
• C. Causes of Fatigue
 Introduction
• An optimal diet supplies required nutrients in
adequate amounts for tissue maintenance,
repair, and growth, without excess energy intake.
• The physically active person must obtain
sufficient energy and macronutrients to replenish
liver and muscle glycogen, provide amino acid
building blocks for tissue growth and repair, and
maintain adequate lipid intake to provide
essential fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins
 A. Energy
• All plants & animals depend on energy to sustain life.
• Humans derive this energy from food.
• Many forms: chemical, electrical, electromagnetic,
thermal, mechanical & nuclear.
• All energy forms are interchangeable; e.g. chemical
energy used to create electrical energy stored in battery.
• Never lost or newly created – it under goes steady
degradation from one form to another, ultimately
becoming heat.
• 60%-70% of the total energy in humans is degraded to
heat. The remainder is used for mechanical work & cellular
activities.
 1. Energy for Cellular Activity
• All energy originates from the sun as light energy.
• Chemical reactions in plants convert light into
stored chemical energy.
• Humans obtain energy by eating plants, or
animals that feed on plants.
• Energy is stored in food in the form of
carbohydrate, fats & proteins
• Human cells can break down these 3 basic food
components to release the stored energy.
 Energy Sources
• Foods are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, & nitrogen
(protein).
• Molecular bonds in foods are weak & provide little energy when
broken.
• Food is NOT used directly for cellular activity.
• Energy in food molecules’ bonds chemically released within
cells, then stored in the form of a high-energy compound called
adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP).
• At rest, energy that body needs is derived almost equally from the
breakdown of CHO & fats.
• Proteins provide little energy for cellular function/activity.
• During mild to severe exercise, more CHO is used.
• In maximal, short-duration exercise, CHO is used exclusively
to produce ATP
 Carbohydrate (CHO)
• CHO – to be useful must be converted into glucose
(monosaccharide) that is transported to all body tissue
via blood.
• During rest, ingested CHO taken up by muscle & liver,
then converted into glycogen (a more complex glucose
molecule).
• Glycogen is stored in cytoplasm until cells use it to
form ATP.
• Liver & muscle glycogen reserves are limited & can be
depleted unless CHO is increase.
• CHO stores in liver & skeletal muscle are limited to <
2,000 kcal of energy.
 Fats
• Fat provides 2 times more energy than CHO
but less accessible for cellularmetabolism
because it must first be reduced from its
complex form (triglyceride)to its basic
components: glycerol & free fatty acids (FFA).
• Only FFA are used to form ATP.
• Fat is a good source of energy, can be stored
exceeding 70,000 kcal of energy.
 Protein
• Protein can be used as energy source if convert
into glucose.
• Protein converted into glucose through
gluconeogenesis.
• In severe energy depletion (starvation), protein
can be converted to FFA for cellular energy
through lipogenesis.
• Protein can supply up to 5-10% of the energy
needed to sustain prolonged exercise.
• Protein can be used as energy source in basic
form of amino acids.
 2. Energy Yield
• 1 g of CHO (C6H12O6) yields4kcal of energy.
• 1 g of fat (C16H18O2) yields9kcal of energy.
• 1 g of protein (NH2+ CO2H) yields4.1kcal of
energy.
• (Though 1 g of fat can generate 2.25 times as
much as a similar amount of CHO, it alsotakes
substantially more oxygen to metabolize fat
than CHO)
 B. Bioenergetics
• The chemical processes involved with the
production of cellular ATP by converting
foodstuffs (i.e., carbohydrates, fats, proteins)
into a biologically usable form of energy.
 ATP Production
• An ATP molecule consists of adenosine
(adenine joined to ribose) combined with
3inorganic phosphate (Pi) groups.
• When acted on by enzyme ATPase (adenosine
tri-phosphatase), the last phosphategroup
splits away from the ATP molecule, rapidly
releasing a large amount of energy (7.6 kcal
per mole of ATP). This reduces the ATP to
ADP & Pi.
ATPase
ATP +H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯>ADP + Pi- G 7.3 kCalmol1
 ….
• The process of storing energy by forming ATP
from other chemical sources is called
phosphorylation.
• Through various chemical reactions, a
phosphate (Pi ) groups is added to a relatively
low-energy compound, ADP, converting it to
ATP.
• When these reactions occur without oxygen, the
process is called anaerobic metabolism.
• With the aid of O2 , the overall process is called
aerobic metabolism & the aerobic conversion of
ADP to ATP is oxidative phosphorylation.
• Cells generate ATP by 3 methods:
• 1.ATP-PC system
• 2. Glycolytic system
• 3. Oxidative system
 ATP-PC system
(Anaerobic ATP Production)
• Formation of ATP by PC breakdown.
• The simplest of the energy system.
• Phosphocreatine (PC) is a high-energy phosphate molecule that
store in the musclecells.
• Energy is released when PC is breakdown / separate to Pi and
creatine by enzyme creatine kinase (CK).
• This energy is not used directly to accomplish cellular work.
• Energy released from the breakdown of PC is used to combine Pi
with ADP to form ATP
• This system is anaerobic that functions to maintain the ATP levels.
• 1 mole of PC will yield 1 mole of ATP.
• Provides energy for short-term and high-intensity exercise that
lasting about 3-15 seconds.
 Glycolytic system
• Occurs in the sarcoplasm of the muscle cells.
• Use only carbohydrate as the main source of fuel.
• Involves Glycolys is the breakdown(lysis)Of Glucose or liver
glycogenTo Pyruvicacid Via glycolytic enzymes
• Glycogen is synthesized from glucose by a process called
glycogenesis & stored inthe liver or in muscle until needed.
• Before either glucose 0r glycogen can be used to generate energy,
they must beconverted to a compound called glucose-6-phosphate.
• Conversion of a molecule of glucose requires 1 mole of ATP.
• 1 mole of Glucose Produces 2 ATPs or 1 mole of Glycogen Produces
3 ATPs
• Provides energy for high-intensity exercise (80-90% max) up to 2
minutes
 Glycolytic system
• If O2 is not available to accept the hydrogen ions in the
mitochondria, pyruvic acid can accept the hydrogen ions to form
the lactic acid
• This accumulation of lactic acid is a major limitation of anaerobic
glycolysis.
• This acidification of muscle fibers inhibits further glycogen
breakdown because itimpairs glycolytic enzymes functions.
• In addition, the acid decreases the fibers’ calcium-binding capacity
& thus mayimpede muscle contraction.
• (Lactic acid is an acid with the chemical formula C3H6O8. Lactate is
any salt of lacticacid. When lactic acid releases H+, the remaining
compound joins Na+ or K+ to form asalt. Anaerobic glycolysis
produces lactic acid, but it quickly dissociates & the salt(lactate) is
form.)
 Oxidative system
• he body’s most complex energy system,
which generates energy by breakdown of fuels with the
aid of O2 (cellular respiration).
• Because O2 is used, this is an aerobic process.
• Has a very high-energy yield and yields more energy
than the ATP-PC or glycolytic system.
• Oxidative production of ATP occurs within the
mitochondria
• Main energy production during endurance activities.
• Oxidative production of ATP involves:
i. Oxidation of CHO ii. Oxidation of Fat
 i. Oxidation of Carbohydrate
• Involves 3 processes:
– Aerobic glycolysis
– The Krebs cycle
– The electron transport chain
 Aerobic glycolysis
• In CHO metabolism, glucose or glycogen is broken
down to pyruvic acid via glycolytic enzymes.
• Hydrogen is released as glucose is metabolized
to pyruvic acid.
• In the presence of O2, the pyruvic acid
is converted into acetyl coenzyme A(acetyl CoA).
• 1 mole of glucose produces 2 moles of ATP or 1
mole of glycogen produces 3 moles of ATP.
 The Electron Transport Chain
(Respiratory chain or cytochrome chain)
• The coenzymes carry the H atom (NADH & FADH) to
the electron transport chain, split into protons &
electrons.
• At the end of the chain, H+ combines with O2 to form
H20 (O2–accepting electrons),thus preventing
acidification.
• The electrons that were split from the H pass through a
series of reactions (ETC)& ultimately provide energy for
the phosphorylation of ADP, thus forming ATP.
• This process relies on O2, referred to as oxidative
phosphorylation
 Energy yield from Carbohydrate
• 1 mole of glycogen generates up to 39 moles of
ATP.
• If 1 mole of glucose, the net gain is 38 ATP
(1 mole of ATP is used for conversion to
glucose-6-phosphate before glycolysis).
 ii. Oxidation of Fat
• Muscle & liver glycogen stores provide only 1,200 –
2,000 kcal of energy.
• Fat stored inside the muscle fibers (fat cells) can supply
about 70,000 – 75,000 kcal.
• Triglycerides (major energy sources) stored in fat cells
in the skeletal muscle fibers.
• Triglycerides break down to its basic units to be used
for energy: 1 mol of glycerol to 3 moles of free fatty
acids/FFA (= process lipolysis with lipases enzymes).
• FFA can enter blood & be transported throughout the
body, entering muscle fibers by diffusion.
 ß Oxidation
• Upon entering the muscle fibers, FFA are
enzymatically activated with energy from ATP,
preparing FFA for catabolism (breakdown) within
the mitochondria.
• This enzymatically catabolism of fat (FFA) by the
mitochondria = beta oxidation (ß oxidation).
• The carbon chain of FFA is cleaved into separate
2-carbon units of acetic acid.
e.g. FFA with 16-carbon chain, ß oxidation yields
8 moles of acetic acid. Each acetic acid converted
to acetyl CoA.
 The Krebs Cycle & the Electron
Transport Chain
• Fat metabolism follows the same path as CHO
metabolism.
• Acetyl CoA formed by ß oxidation enters the Krebs
cycle,
• Krebs cycle generates H+ that is transported to the
electron transport chain, along with H+ generated
during ß oxidation, to undergo oxidative
phosphorylation – produce ATP, H2O & CO2.
• The complete combustion of FFA molecule requires
more O2 because FFA contains more carbon (C) than a
glucose molecule.
• More carbon in FFA, more acetyl CoA is formed from
the metabolism of fat, so more enters the Krebs cycle
& more electrons are sent to the e. t. chain. (Fat
metabolism generate more energy than glucose
metabolism)
• Eg. Palmitic acid, 16-carbon FFA. The combine reaction
of oxidation, Krebs cycle, & e. t. chain produce 129
molecules of ATP from 1 mole of palmitic acid. (1 mol
of glucose/glycogen = 38/39 moles of ATP)
• 40% of the energy released by metabolism is captured
to form ATP, 60% is given off as heat.
 4. Protein Metabolism
• Proteins (amino acids) are also used as body fuels.
• Some amino acids can be converted into glucose (gluconeogenesis)
• Some can be converted into various intermediates of oxidative metabolism (such
as pyruvate or acetyl CoA) to enter the oxidative process.
• Protein’s energy yield is not easy because it contains nitrogen (N).
• When amino acids are catabolized, some of the released N is used to form new
amino acids, but remaining N cannot be oxidized by body.
• N is converted into urea & then excreted in the urine. This conversion use ATP, so
some energy is spent in this process.
• In laboratory, 1 gram of protein = 5.65 kcal of energy.
• When metabolized in the body, energy used to convert N to urea, energy yield is
only about 5.20 kcal per gram (8% less than the lab. Value).
• Healthy body utilizes little protein during rest & exercise (< 5-10% of total energy
expended).
• Estimates of energy expenditure generally ignore protein metabolism.
 5. The Oxidative Capacity of Muscle
• Oxidative metabolism has the highest energy
yields.
• Oxidative capacity (QO2) – A measure of the
muscle’s maximal capacity to use oxygen.
• Oxidative capacity depends on:
a. Enzyme Activity
b. Fiber-type Composition
c. Oxygen Needs
 Enzyme Activity
• Many enzymes are required for oxidation.
• The enzyme activity of the muscle fibers provides
an indication of the oxidative potential.
• The enzymes most frequently measured are SDH
(succinate dehydrogenase), CS (citrate synthase)
& mitochondria enzymes in the Krebs cycle.
• Endurance athletes’ muscles have oxidative
enzyme activities 2-4 times greater than those
untrained men & women.
 Fiber-type Composition

• Muscle’s fiber-type composition determines its oxidative

capacity.
• Slow-twitch (ST) fibers have a greater capacity for aerobic
activity than the Fast twitch (FT) fibers because ST fibers have
more mitochondria & higher concentrations of oxidative
enzymes.
• More ST fibers, the greater oxidative capacity in the muscle.
• FT fibers are better suited for glycolytic energy production.
• Elite distance runners have reported to process more ST
fibers, more mitochondria & higher muscle oxidative enzyme
activity than untrained individuals.
• Endurance training enhances the oxidative capacity of
fibers, especially FT fibers.
• Training that places demands on oxidative phosphorylation
stimulates the muscle fibers to develop more mitochondria
that are also larger & contain more oxidative enzymes.
• By increasing the fiber’s enzymes for ß oxidation, this
training also enables the muscle to rely more heavily on fat
for ATP production.
• With endurance training, even people with large % of FT
fibers can increase their muscles’ aerobic capacities.
• Endurance-trained FT fiber will not develop the same high-
endurance capacity as a similarly trained ST fiber.
 Oxygen Needs
• Oxidative metabolism depends on an adequate supply
of O2.
• When at rest, body’s need for ATP is small, requiring
minimal O2 delivery.
• As exercise intensity increases, to meet the energy
demands, the rate of oxidative ATP production also
increases.
• In an effort to satisfy the muscle need for O2, the rate
& depth of the respiration increase, improving gas
exchange in the lungs, & heart beats faster, pumping
more oxygenated blood to the muscle.
 C. Causes of Fatigue
• 1. Depletion of PC or glycogen: The depletion of
PC or glycogen will impairs ATP production, thus
fatigue is caused by inadequate energy supply.
• 2. Accumulation of metabolic by-products:
Accumulation of hydrogen (H+) decreases muscle
pH, causes muscle acidification (acidosis), which
impairs the cellular processes that produce
energy (inhibits the action of glycolytic enzyme,
slowing the rate of glycolysis & ATP production) &
muscle contraction.
• 3. Failure of neural transmission in the muscle fiber:
Fatigue may occur at the motor end plate, preventing
nerves impulse transmission to the muscle fiber
membrane, thus cause the neuromuscular block and
leads to neuromuscular fatigue.
• 4. CNS may cause fatigue: Perceived fatigue usually
leads to psychologically exhausted/fatigue and the
exhausted feeling can often be psychologically trauma
and may inhibit the athlete’s willingness to tolerate
further pain or to continue exercise.