Types of Nuclear Reactors

1. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR):

• Simplest type of water reactor.
• It has a steel pressure vessel surrounded by a concrete shield.
• Enriched uranium oxide is used as fuel.
• Ordinary water is used both as a moderator and coolant.
• The steam is generated in the reactor itself.
• Feed water enters the reactor vessel at the bottom and takes the heat
produced due to fission of fuel and gets converted into steam.
• This steam leaves the reactor at the top and after passing through
turbine and condenser returns to the reactor.
• Uranium fuel elements are arranged in a particular lattice form inside
the pressure vessel containing water.
Advantages:
• Small size pressure vessel.
• High steam pressure.
• Simple construction.
• Elimination of heat exchanger circuit resulting in reduction in cost and
gain in thermal efficiency.
• Overall efficiency is about 33%.
Disadvantages:
• In view of the direct cycle, there is a danger of radio-active
contamination of steam.
• Safety measures are required to be provided which will increase the
cost.
• Because of the danger of small amounts of fissile materials passing
through along with the coolant, more biological protection is
required.
• Wastage of steam results in lowering of thermal efficiency on part
load operation.
• Difficult to meet a sudden increase in load.
Example: Reactor at Tarapur atomic power station.
2. Pressurized water Reactor:
• PWR is a thermal reactor, using enriched uranium oxide, clad in
zircalloy as fuel.
• The pressure vessel is made up of steel.
• Water under pressure is used both as coolant and moderator.
• The pressure vessel and the heat exchanger are surrounded by a
concrete shield.
• In this reactor, bulk boiling water is prevented as the water is
pressurized to about 150 atmosphere.
• The hot water form the reactor flow to a heat exchanger (or steam
generator) where its heat is transferred to the feed water to generate
steam.
• The secondary coolant operates at a low pressure.
• The primary coolant then flows from the heat exchanger to the
primary circulating pump which pumps it back to the reactor.
• The steam is condensed in the condenser and the condensate returns
to the heat exchanger forming a closed circuit.
• The primary circuit of a pressurized water reactor (PWR) contains a
‘pressurizer’.
• This is simply a pressure vessel with an electric heating coil at the
bottom and a water spray at the top.
• The top of the vessel is filled with steam at primary circuit pressure.
• When the primary circuit pressure decreases, the heating coil gets
energized and boils the water to form steam resulting in increase in
steam content in the vessel and also results in increase in steam
pressure of the primary circuit.
• In case the steam pressure of the primary circuit becomes too high,
cold water is sprayed into the steam in the pressurizer.
• The steam is condensed and therefore primary circuit pressure is
reduced.
• The steam generated is of rather poor quality, temperature around
250oC and pressure of 42 kg/cm2.
• The overall efficiency is 33%.
Advantages:
• Compactness.
• Possibility of breeding plutonium.
• Isolation of radio-active materials from the main steam system.
• Cheap light water can be used as coolant cum moderator.
• High power density.
Disadvantages:
• A strong pressure vessel is required because of use of high pressure
water system.
• Formation of low temperature (250oC) steam.
• Use of expensive cladding material for prevention of corrosion.
• High losses from heat exchanger.
• High power consumption from auxiliaries.
• Requirement of more safety devices compared to others.

Example:
• Reactors at Rajasthan Atomic power station, Madras Atomic power
station and Narora power project are PHWR.
3. Gas Cooled nuclear reactor:
• Employs a gas (CO2 or helium) in place of water as the coolant and
graphite as the moderator.
• A heat exchanger is necessarily required.
• Gas is circulated through the reactor core and the heat exchanger by
means of a blower and a gas compressor.
• Even though gas is inferior to water from the point of view of eat
transfer properties but if offers numerous advantages which are not
available with water.
• A large quantity of gas is required due to poor heat transfer qualities
for circulation resulting in increased power consumption for
auxiliaries.
• Graphite as a moderator is less effective than water and would
require a large volume core in such reactors, the heat removal by gas
cooling will be better.
• The gas is circulated at a pressure of 14-28kg/cm2.
• The tubes in the heat exchanger through which water is circulated
should have fins on their surface so as to improve the rate of heat
transfer.
Advantages:
• Less severe corrosion problems.
• Possibility of use of natural uranium as fuel.
• Greater safety in comparison with water cooled reactors.
• Contamination problems are moderate.
• Low pressure coolant and relatively high reactor temperature.
Drawbacks:
• Relatively large size of reactor because of use of natural fuel and
graphite moderator.
• Extremely low power density.
• Low steam pressure and temperature
• Large energy consumption by gas blowers because of poor heat
transfer characteristics of gases.
4. Heavy water cooled and moderated (CANDU type) reactor:
• This reactor was first developed by Canada and is, therefore, known
as CANDU type reactor.
• The word CANDU stands for Canadian Deuterium Uranium.
• These reactors make use of heavy water, composed of the heavy
hydrogen isotope, 1H2, as moderator to have maximum neutron
economy and as coolant also.
• Such reactors are meant for those countries which do not have
uranium enrichment facilities.
• Enrichment of uranium is costly affair and such reactors use natural
uranium as fuel.
• The primary and secondary circuits are similar to pressurized water
reactor (PWR)-the coolant heavy water is circulated in the primary
circuit and the steam is produced in the secondary circuit transferring
the heat in the heat exchanger.
• Heavy hydrogen exists in nature in the ratio 1:6700 as compared to
ordinary hydrogen and therefore, heavy water is very difficult and
expensive to separate from ordinary water.
• However, it is simpler to accomplish in comparison to enrichment of
uranium.
• Hence in some designs, heavy water is used as moderator and light
water is used in the secondary circuit.
• Control rods are not required in such reactors as the reactor control is
achieved by varying the moderator level in the reactor.
• For rapid shut down purposes, the moderator can be dumped through
a very large area into a tank provided below the reactor.
• The most important advantage of such a reactor is that the heavy
water has a very low absorption cross-section and it can be used as a
moderator in natural uranium thermal reactors and therefore, the fuel
need not be enriched.
• Other advantages are simpler reactor control because of absence of
control rods, high multiplication factor, low fuel consumption and
much more effectiveness in slowing down neutrons because of
moderator being at low temperature.
• It is worth mentioning here that a major part of the equipment for this
reactor can be manufactured in the shop and period required for site
construction is also comparatively smaller.
• Main drawbacks are heavy cost of heavy water, problems of leakage
and very high standard design, etc.
5. Liquid Metal Cooled Reactors:
• This type of reactor has been developed to avoid difficulties faced in
pressurization of water as in PWR and at the same time retaining the
advantage of having high temperature.
• Metals in liquid state have good thermal conductivity and high
temperature can be had at moderate pressure.
• However, handling of sodium introduces difficulties because of its
activity in reactor core.
• It is therefore necessary to employ two heat transfer circuits so that
radio-active sodium does not come in contact with the steam circuit.
• A sodium graphite reactor is shown in figure (earlier slide).
• Sodium is circulated through the reactor core and an intermediated
heat exchanger where the heat from sodium (Na) is transferred to the
NaK liquid metal which gives up heat in the heat exchanger to
generate steam.
• Because of violent reaction of sodium with air and water, the whole
system should be leak tight.
• Charging and draining from one of the two loops should be done in and
inert atmosphere to avoid the contact of Na and NaK with air.
• Sodium graphite reactor(SGR) uses slightly enriched uranium alloy or
uranium carbide clad with stainless steel as fuel, graphite as moderator
and liquid sodium as coolant.
• NaK alloy has a lower melting point and therefore allows a higher heat
absorption.
• But potassium may react with graphite and also it has a higher neutron
absorption cross-section than sodium.
• Because of this, liquid sodium is used as a coolant in the primary heat
transfer circuit.
• Again sodium does not interact with stainless steel upto 600oC.
Advantages:
• Elimination of pressure on reactor and primary circuit due to high boiling
point of liquid metal.
• Steam generation at high pressure and temperature
• Reduced corrosion problems
• High reactor temperature
• Reduced containment requirements because of low coolant pressure.

Disadvantages:
• Relatively complex core.
• Requirement of enriched fuel.
• Requirement of triple cycle cooling system with dual heat exchangers to
minimize hazards.
6. Fast-Breeder Reactor:
• A fast breeder reactor is a small vessel in which the required quantity
(corresponding to critical mass) of enriched uranium or plutonium is
kept without a moderator.
• The fissionable fuel core is surrounded by a blanket of fertile material
(U-238 or Th-232).
• The fertile material (U-238 or Th-232) absorbs neutrons produced by
the fissioning of U-235 and produces fissile material Pu-239 or U-233
respectively.
• Two heat exchangers are used.
• The reactor core is cooled by liquid metal (sodium or potassium).
• In the second heat exchanger, the coolant is again liquid
sodium/potassium which transfers heat to feed water to generate
steam.
• This prevents the possibility of a sodium-water reaction with the
radio-active sodium.
• In fast breeder reactors neutron shielding is provided by using boron,
light water, oil or graphite.
• Gamma-ray shielding is accomplished by lead, concrete with added
magnetite or barium, etc.
• The core of a fast reactor needs high enrichment (above 10% of fissile
material).
• To reduce the fuel cost effect, it is imperative to employ high ratings.
• The core consists of 30% fuel, 50% coolant and 20% canning and
structural material by volume.
Radioactivity and Hazards:
• Isotopes of thorium, radium and uranium are unstable.
• They disintegrate spontaneously and give off electromagnetic
radiations.
• This process of disintegration of an unstable nucleus is called
radioactivity.
• The unstable nuclei decay through one or more states until finally a
stable nucleus is produced.
• Radioactivity may be occurring naturally or produced artificially.
• Artificial radioactivity is often produced by subjecting nuclei to
neutron bombardment.
• The radiations emitted in the process of radioactive decay are:
• α particles, β particles, γ rays and neutrons.
• α particles are nuclei of the helium atom 2He4. They are heavy particles
carrying positive charge and travel at one-tenth of speed of light.
• Examples of α emission are:
• 92U238 4
2He + 90Th
234

• 94Pu239 2He4 + U235

92
• Thus emissions from an isotope reduce the mass number by 4 and
nuclear charge by 2. A new isotope of an element two units lower in
the periodic table is produced.
• α-rays are heavy particles carrying positive charge and can cause
internal hazard if ingested.
• β particles result due to the disintegration of a neutron into proton.
• If a β particle is emitted, the nucleus has effectively gained a unit of
positive charge.
• It has become an element one unit higher in the periodic table.
• β particles are electrons (having negligible mass and negative charge)
travelling at the speed of light.
• β particles are more penetrating than α particles due to their smaller
size.
• Over exposure to β particles can cause skin burns and repeated over
exposure may result in malignant growth.
• They can be shielded by a thin sheet of metal.
• When an α or β particle is emitted from nucleus, the smaller nucleus
is in an excited state and it emits the excess energy as gamma rays.
• Thus the emission of γ rays means an energy adjustment inside the
nucleus.
• Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations of short wave length.
• Gamma rays are similar to x rays, have high energy, very light and
highly penetrating.
• They have short wavelength (i.e. 10-8 to 10-11 cms).
• Exposure to gamma rays may cause blood diseases and undesirable
genetic effects.
• Larger exposure may cause death within hours of exposure.
• However, the effects of slow exposure may become apparent after
several years.
• The fourth type of radioactive emission is neutron emission.
• If a neutron is emitted, the element remains the same but a different
isotope results.
• Neutrons are produced in fission with a very wide range of energies upto
10 MeV.
• Though they have no charge but are highly penetrating.
• Their effects are similar to those of gamma rays.

The biological effect of nuclear radiations depend upon

a. Amount of dose absorbed.
b. Time duration of exposure.
c. Sensitivity and recovery of recipient organism.
d. Distribution of active material within body.
• A long time exposure to even a small dose may not cause any
immediate effect but leads to delayed effects such as shortening of
life, leukemia, genetic effects, etc.
• Nuclear power stations are surrounded by a sanitary protective zone t
minimize the risk of irradiation of the population within such a zone.
• It is prohibited to build residential buildings, children houses and
auxiliary buildings not related to the concerned power plant.
• The level of radiation of this territory is checked periodically.
Disposal of Nuclear wastes and effluents:
• In nuclear power stations, the combustion of fuel is low.
• Harmful effluents from such power stations in the atmosphere are
insignificant.
• However, isotopes formed in nuclear power reactors have a high
toxicity and their effect on living organisms may be accumulative.
• That is why, the problems of disposal, transport and storage of liquid
radio-active wastes are extremely significant.
• Such power plants will produce practically no harmful effect on the
bio-sphere provided the radio-active waste storage problem is safely
solved.
• Solid radioactive wastes arise from used filters, sludge from the
cooling ponds, pieces of discarded fuel element cans, splitters etc.
• Solid wastes along with discarded items of plant such as control rods
have to be stored on site in shielded concrete vaults.
• There are many ways for disposing the solid fission products.
• The storing in shielded storage vaults consists in fixing the solid waste
in boro-silicate glass and then storage of this glass in leak tight
capsules.
• These capsules or vaults can then be stored in deep salt mines or in
deep wells drilled in the stable ocean floor.
• Deep salt mines are suggested because the presence of salt pockets
indicates that there has been no ground water in the vicinity for
thousands of years.
• Sometimes, suitable containers are filled with radioactive waste and
sunk to the bottom of seas and oceans and this method does not
completely prevent the radioactivity from leading into the water.
• Another way of disposal is the separation and transmutation of the
long-lived isotopes to short-lived or stable products following neutron
absorption in a breeder or fusion reactor.
• The possibility of firing these long-lived products into the sun or into a
long term stable orbit is also being considered.
• Radioactive liquid effluents arise from the laundry, personal
decontamination, etc, together with activity accumulating from the
corrosion of the irradiated fuel elements in the storage ponds.
• Before discharging to sea where enormous dilution takes place, the
effluent is passed through ion-exchange resins which absorb a large
proportion of activity.
• The final levels of any particular isotope in the sea will be well below
the maximum drinking water level.
• It is safe enough to store radioactive waste under the ground in liquid
form in suitable tanks or in reduction to clinker.
• Clinkering serves a two fold purpose of improving the protection and
reducing the volume of waste.
• A promising method is known as “solidifying” the liquid radioactive
waste through heat up and evaporation.
• The current technology enables 1,000 litres of highly radioactive
liquid waste to be processed into less than 0.01 m3 of solid waste.
• The solid waste is put into sealed metal containers suitable for
storage in deep salt mines.
• Gaseous effluents are filtered before discharging into atmosphere.
• Moreover, the filtered gas is discharged at high levels so that it is dispersed
properly.
• The probability of fire in the reactor fuel channel is extremely low.
• However, if fire breaks out, large volumes of gaseous fission products may
be released.
• So it is necessary to have a clean up plant through which these products can
be passed for removal of radioactive iodine which is the major hazard.
• It is essential to monitor the loss of CO2 from the reactor to ensure that this
loss does not exceed about 1 ton per day.
• It is also necessary to check the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere
near the reactor.
• Proper precautions against tonic and radiological hazards are necessary.